Fingerprint - Wikipedia

A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method ... Fingerprint FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Biometricidentifier Thisarticleisabouthumanfingerprints.Forotheruses,seeFingerprint(disambiguation). "Thumbprint"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeThumbprint(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonForensicscience Physiological Anthropology Biology Bloodstainpatternanalysis Dentistry DNAphenotyping DNAprofiling Entomology Epidemiology Limnology Medicine Palynology Pathology Podiatry Toxicology Social Psychiatry Psychology Psychotherapy Socialwork Criminalistics Accounting Bodyidentification Chemistry Colorimetry Electionforensics Facialreconstruction Fingerprintanalysis Firearmexamination Footwearevidence Forensicarts Profiling Gloveprintanalysis Palmprintanalysis Questioneddocumentexamination Veinmatching Forensicgeophysics Forensicgeology Digitalforensics Computerexams Dataanalysis Databasestudy Malwareanalysis Mobiledevices Networkanalysis Photography Videoanalysis Audioanalysis Relateddisciplines Electricalengineering Engineering Fireinvestigation Fireaccelerantdetection Fractography Linguistics Materialsengineering Polymerengineering Statistics Trafficcollisionreconstruction Relatedarticles Crimescene CSIeffect PerryMasonsyndrome Pollencalendar Skidmark Traceevidence UseofDNAinforensicentomology Outline Categoryvte Afingerprintisanimpressionleftbythefrictionridgesofahumanfinger.Therecoveryofpartialfingerprintsfromacrimesceneisanimportantmethodofforensicscience.Moistureandgreaseonafingerresultinfingerprintsonsurfacessuchasglassormetal.Deliberateimpressionsofentirefingerprintscanbeobtainedbyinkorothersubstancestransferredfromthepeaksoffrictionridgesontheskintoasmoothsurfacesuchaspaper.Fingerprintrecordsnormallycontainimpressionsfromthepadonthelastjointoffingersandthumbs,thoughfingerprintcardsalsotypicallyrecordportionsoflowerjointareasofthefingers. Humanfingerprintsaredetailed,nearlyunique,difficulttoalter,anddurableoverthelifeofanindividual,makingthemsuitableaslong-termmarkersofhumanidentity.Theymaybeemployedbypoliceorotherauthoritiestoidentifyindividualswhowishtoconcealtheiridentity,ortoidentifypeoplewhoareincapacitatedordeceasedandthusunabletoidentifythemselves,asintheaftermathofanaturaldisaster. Theiruseasevidencehasbeenchallengedbyacademics,judgesandthemedia.Therearenouniformstandardsforpoint-countingmethods,andacademicshavearguedthattheerrorrateinmatchingfingerprintshasnotbeenadequatelystudiedandthatfingerprintevidencehasnosecurestatisticalfoundation.[1]Researchhasbeenconductedintowhetherexpertscanobjectivelyfocusonfeatureinformationinfingerprintswithoutbeingmisledbyextraneousinformation,suchascontext.[2] Contents 1Biology 2Genetics 3Classificationsystems 4Fingerprintidentification 5Fingerprintingtechniques 5.1Exemplar 5.2Latent 6Captureanddetection 6.1Livescandevices 6.2Fingerprintingdeadhumans 6.3Latentfingerprintdetection 7Forensiclaboratories 8Crimesceneinvestigations 9Detectionofdruguse 10Policeforcedatabases 11Validity 12Professionalcertification 13History 13.1Antiquityandthemedievalperiod 13.2Europeinthe17thand18thcenturies 13.319thcentury 13.420thcentury 14Useoffingerprintsinschools 15Absenceormutilationoffingerprints 16Fingerprintverification 16.1Patterns 16.2Minutiaefeatures 17Fingerprintsensors 17.1Consumerelectronicsloginauthentication 17.2Video 18Algorithms 18.1Pre-processing 18.2Pattern-based(orimage-based)algorithms 19Inotherspecies 20Infiction 20.1MarkTwain 20.2Crimefiction 20.3Filmandtelevision 21Seealso 22References 23Externallinks Biology Thefrictionridgesonafinger Fingerprintsareimpressionsleftonsurfacesbythefrictionridgesonthefingerofahuman.[3]Thematchingoftwofingerprintsisamongthemostwidelyusedandmostreliablebiometrictechniques.Fingerprintmatchingconsidersonlytheobviousfeaturesofafingerprint.[4] Africtionridgeisaraisedportionoftheepidermisonthedigits(fingersandtoes),thepalmofthehandorthesoleofthefoot,consistingofoneormoreconnectedridgeunitsoffrictionridgeskin.[citationneeded]Thesearesometimesknownas"epidermalridges"whicharecausedbytheunderlyinginterfacebetweenthedermalpapillaeofthedermisandtheinterpapillary(rete)pegsoftheepidermis.Theseepidermalridgesservetoamplifyvibrationstriggered,forexample,whenfingertipsbrushacrossanunevensurface,bettertransmittingthesignalstosensorynervesinvolvedinfinetextureperception.[5]Theseridgesmayalsoassistingrippingroughsurfacesandmayimprovesurfacecontactinwetconditions.[6] Genetics Consensuswithinthescientificcommunitysuggeststhatthedermatoglyphicpatternsonfingertipsarehereditary.[7]Thefingerprintpatternsbetweenmonozygotictwinshavebeenshowntobeverysimilar,whereasdizygotictwinshaveconsiderablylesssimilarity.[7]Significantheritabilityhasbeenidentifiedfor12dermatoglyphiccharacteristics.[8]CurrentmodelsofdermatoglyphictraitinheritancesuggestMendeliantransmissionwithadditionaleffectsfromeitheradditiveordominantmajorgenes.[9] Whereasgenesdeterminethegeneralcharacteristicsofpatternsandtheirtype,thepresenceofenvironmentalfactorsresultintheslightdifferentiationofeachfingerprint.However,therelativeinfluencesofgeneticandenvironmentaleffectsonfingerprintpatternsaregenerallyunclear.Onestudyhassuggestedthatroughly5%ofthetotalvariabilityisduetosmallenvironmentaleffects,althoughthiswasonlyperformedusingtotalridgecountasametric.[7]Severalmodelsoffingerridgeformationmechanismsthatleadtothevastdiversityoffingerprintshavebeenproposed.Onemodelsuggeststhatabucklinginstabilityinthebasalcelllayerofthefetalepidermisisresponsiblefordevelopingepidermalridges.[10]Additionally,bloodvesselsandnervesmayalsoservearoleintheformationofridgeconfigurations.[11]Anothermodelindicatesthatchangesinamnioticfluidsurroundingeachdevelopingfingerwithintheuteruscausecorrespondingcellsoneachfingerprinttogrowindifferentmicroenvironments.[12]Foragivenindividual,thesevariousfactorsaffecteachfingerdifferentlypreventingtwofingerprintsfrombeingidenticalwhilestillretainingsimilarpatterns. Itisimportanttonotethatthedeterminationoffingerprintinheritanceismadedifficultbythevastdiversityofphenotypes.Classificationofaspecificpatternisoftensubjective(lackofconsensusonthemostappropriatecharacteristictomeasurequantitatively)whichcomplicatesanalysisofdermatoglyphicpatterns.Severalmodesofinheritancehavebeensuggestedandobservedforvariousfingerprintpatterns.Totalfingerprintridgecount,acommonlyusedmetricoffingerprintpatternsize,hasbeensuggestedtohaveapolygenicmodeofinheritanceandisinfluencedbymultipleadditivegenes.[7]Thishypothesishasbeenchallengedbyotherresearch,however,whichindicatesthatridgecountsonindividualfingersaregeneticallyindependentandlackevidencetosupporttheexistenceofadditivegenesinfluencingpatternformation.[13]Anothermodeoffingerprintpatterninheritancesuggeststhatthearchpatternonthethumbandonotherfingersareinheritedasanautosomaldominanttrait.[14]Furtherresearchonthearchpatternhassuggestedthatamajorgeneormultifactorialinheritanceisresponsibleforarchpatternheritability.[15]Aseparatemodelforthedevelopmentofthewhorlpatternindicatesthatasinglegeneorgroupoflinkedgenescontributestoitsinheritance.[16]Furthermore,inheritanceofthewhorlpatterndoesnotappeartobesymmetricinthatthepatternisseeminglyrandomlydistributedamongthetenfingersofagivenindividual.[16]Ingeneral,comparisonoffingerprintpatternsbetweenleftandrighthandssuggestsanasymmetryintheeffectsofgenesonfingerprintpatterns,althoughthisobservationrequiresfurtheranalysis.[17] Inadditiontoproposedmodelsofinheritance,specificgeneshavebeenimplicatedasfactorsinfingertippatternformation(theirexactmechanismofinfluencingpatternsisstillunderresearch).Multivariatelinkageanalysisoffingerridgecountsonindividualfingersrevealedlinkagetochromosome5q14.1specificallyforthering,index,andmiddlefingers.[18]Inmice,variantsinthegeneEVI1werecorrelatedwithdermatoglyphicpatterns.[19]EVI1expressioninhumansdoesnotdirectlyinfluencefingerprintpatternsbutdoesaffectlimbanddigitformationwhichinturnmayplayaroleininfluencingfingerprintpatterns.[19]Genome-wideassociationstudiesfoundsinglenucleotidepolymorphismswithinthegeneADAMTS9-AS2on3p14.1,whichappearedtohaveaninfluenceonthewhorlpatternonalldigits.[20]ThisgeneencodesantisenseRNAwhichmayinhibitADAMTS9,whichisexpressedintheskin.AmodelofhowgeneticvariantsofADAMTS9-AS2directlyinfluencewhorldevelopmenthasnotyetbeenproposed.[20] Classificationsystems Afingerprintarch Afingerprintloop Afingerprintwhorl Afingerprintarch Beforecomputerization,manualfilingsystemswereusedinlargefingerprintrepositories.[21]Afingerprintclassificationsystemgroupsfingerprintsaccordingtotheircharacteristicsandthereforehelpsinthematchingofafingerprintagainstalargedatabaseoffingerprints.Aqueryfingerprintthatneedstobematchedcanthereforebecomparedwithasubsetoffingerprintsinanexistingdatabase.[4]Earlyclassificationsystemswerebasedonthegeneralridgepatterns,includingthepresenceorabsenceofcircularpatterns,ofseveralorallfingers.Thisallowedthefilingandretrievalofpaperrecordsinlargecollectionsbasedonfrictionridgepatternsalone.Themostpopularsystemsusedthepatternclassofeachfingertoformanumerickeytoassistlookupinafilingsystem.FingerprintclassificationsystemsincludedtheRoscherSystem,theJuanVucetichSystemandtheHenryClassificationSystem.TheRoscherSystemwasdevelopedinGermanyandimplementedinbothGermanyandJapan.TheVucetichSystemwasdevelopedinArgentinaandimplementedthroughoutSouthAmerica.TheHenryClassificationSystemwasdevelopedinIndiaandimplementedinmostEnglish-speakingcountries.[21] IntheHenryClassificationSystemtherearethreebasicfingerprintpatterns:loop,whorl,andarch,[22]whichconstitute60–65percent,30–35percent,and5percentofallfingerprintsrespectively.[citationneeded]Therearealsomorecomplexclassificationsystemsthatbreakdownpatternsevenfurther,intoplainarchesortentedarches,[21]andintoloopsthatmayberadialorulnar,dependingonthesideofthehandtowardwhichthetailpoints.Ulnarloopsstartonthepinky-sideofthefinger,thesideclosertotheulna,thelowerarmbone.Radialloopsstartonthethumb-sideofthefinger,thesideclosertotheradius.Whorlsmayalsohavesub-groupclassificationsincludingplainwhorls,accidentalwhorls,doubleloopwhorls,peacock'seye,composite,andcentralpocketloopwhorls.[21] Thissectionmaybeconfusingoruncleartoreaders.Pleasehelpclarifythesection.Theremightbeadiscussionaboutthisonthetalkpage.(August2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thesystemusedbymostexperts,althoughcomplex,issimilartotheHenryClassificationSystem.Itconsistsoffivefractions,inwhichRstandsforright,Lforleft,iforindexfinger,mformiddlefinger,tforthumb,rforringfingerandp(pinky)forlittlefinger.Thefractionsareasfollows: Ri/Rt+Rr/Rm+Lt/Rp+Lm/Li+Lp/Lr Thenumbersassignedtoeachprintarebasedonwhetherornottheyarewhorls.Awhorlinthefirstfractionisgivena16,thesecondan8,thethirda4,thefourtha2,and0tothelastfraction.Archesandloopsareassignedvaluesof0.Lastly,thenumbersinthenumeratoranddenominatorareaddedup,usingthescheme: (Ri+Rr+Lt+Lm+Lp)/(Rt+Rm+Rp+Li+Lr) A1isaddedtobothtopandbottom,toexcludeanypossibilityofdivisionbyzero.Forexample,iftherightringfingerandtheleftindexfingerhavewhorls,thefractionusedis: 0/0+8/0+0/0+0/2+0/0+1/1 Theresultingcalculationis: (0+8+0+0+0+1)/(0+0+0+2+0+1)=9/3=3 Fingerprintidentification Afingerprintcreatedbythefrictionridgestructure Fingerprintidentification,knownasdactyloscopy,[23]orhandprintidentification,istheprocessofcomparingtwoinstancesoffrictionridgeskinimpressions(seeMinutiae),fromhumanfingersortoes,oreventhepalmofthehandorsoleofthefoot,todeterminewhethertheseimpressionscouldhavecomefromthesameindividual.Theflexibilityoffrictionridgeskinmeansthatnotwofingerorpalmprintsareeverexactlyalikeineverydetail;eventwoimpressionsrecordedimmediatelyaftereachotherfromthesamehandmaybeslightlydifferent.[citationneeded]Fingerprintidentification,alsoreferredtoasindividualization,involvesanexpert,oranexpertcomputersystemoperatingunderthresholdscoringrules,determiningwhethertwofrictionridgeimpressionsarelikelytohaveoriginatedfromthesamefingerorpalm(ortoeorsole). Anintentionalrecordingoffrictionridgesisusuallymadewithblackprinter'sinkrolledacrossacontrastingwhitebackground,typicallyawhitecard.Frictionridgescanalsoberecordeddigitally,usuallyonaglassplate,usingatechniquecalledLiveScan.A"latentprint"isthechancerecordingoffrictionridgesdepositedonthesurfaceofanobjectorawall.Latentprintsareinvisibletothenakedeye,whereas"patentprints"or"plasticprints"areviewablewiththeunaidedeye.Latentprintsareoftenfragmentaryandrequiretheuseofchemicalmethods,powder,oralternativelightsourcesinordertobemadeclear.Sometimesanordinarybrightflashlightwillmakealatentprintvisible. Whenfrictionridgescomeintocontactwithasurfacethatwilltakeaprint,materialthatisonthefrictionridgessuchasperspiration,oil,grease,ink,orblood,willbetransferredtothesurface.Factorswhichaffectthequalityoffrictionridgeimpressionsarenumerous.Pliabilityoftheskin,depositionpressure,slippage,thematerialfromwhichthesurfaceismade,theroughnessofthesurface,andthesubstancedepositedarejustsomeofthevariousfactorswhichcancausealatentprinttoappeardifferentlyfromanyknownrecordingofthesamefrictionridges.Indeed,theconditionssurroundingeveryinstanceoffrictionridgedepositionareuniqueandneverduplicated.Forthesereasons,fingerprintexaminersarerequiredtoundergoextensivetraining.Thescientificstudyoffingerprintsiscalleddermatoglyphics. Fingerprintingtechniques Exemplarprintsonpaperusingink Barelyvisiblelatentprintsonaknife Exemplar Exemplarprints,orknownprints,isthenamegiventofingerprintsdeliberatelycollectedfromasubject,whetherforpurposesofenrollmentinasystemorwhenunderarrestforasuspectedcriminaloffense.Duringcriminalarrests,asetofexemplarprintswillnormallyincludeoneprinttakenfromeachfingerthathasbeenrolledfromoneedgeofthenailtotheother,plain(orslap)impressionsofeachofthefourfingersofeachhand,andplainimpressionsofeachthumb.Exemplarprintscanbecollectedusinglivescanorbyusinginkonpapercards. Latent Inforensicscienceapartialfingerprintliftedfromasurface,iscalledalatentfringerprint.Moistureandgreaseonfingersresultinlatentfingerprintsonsurfacessuchasglass.Butbecausetheyarenotclearlyvisible,theirdetectionmayrequirechemicaldevelopmentthroughpowderdusting,thesprayingofninhydrin,iodinefuming,orsoakinginsilvernitrate.[24]Dependingonthesurfaceorthematerialonwhichalatentfingerprinthasbeenfound,differentmethodsofchemicaldevelopmentmustbeused.Forensicscientistsusedifferenttechniquesforporoussurfaces,suchaspaper,andnonporoussurfaces,suchasglass,metalorplastic.[25]Nonporoussurfacesrequirethedustingprocess,wherefinepowderandabrushareused,followedbytheapplicationoftransparenttapetoliftthelatentfingerprintoffthesurface.[25] Whilethepoliceoftendescribeallpartialfingerprintsfoundatacrimesceneaslatentprints,forensicscientistscallpartialfingerprintsthatarereadilyvisiblepatentprints.Chocolate,toner,paintorinkonfingerswillresultinpatentfingerprints.Latentfingerprintsimpressionsthatarefoundonsoftmaterial,suchassoap,cementorplaster,arecalledplasticprintsbyforensicscientists.[26] Captureanddetection Livescandevices Fingerprintbeingscanned 3Dfingerprint[27] Fingerprintimageacquisitionisconsideredtobethemostcriticalstepinanautomatedfingerprintauthenticationsystem,asitdeterminesthefinalfingerprintimagequality,whichhasadrasticeffectontheoverallsystemperformance.Therearedifferenttypesoffingerprintreadersonthemarket,butthebasicideabehindeachistomeasurethephysicaldifferencebetweenridgesandvalleys. Alltheproposedmethodscanbegroupedintotwomajorfamilies:solid-statefingerprintreadersandopticalfingerprintreaders.Theprocedureforcapturingafingerprintusingasensorconsistsofrollingortouchingwiththefingerontoasensingarea,whichaccordingtothephysicalprincipleinuse(optical,ultrasonic,capacitive,orthermal –see§ Fingerprintsensors)capturesthedifferencebetweenvalleysandridges.Whenafingertouchesorrollsontoasurface,theelasticskindeforms.Thequantityanddirectionofthepressureappliedbytheuser,theskinconditionsandtheprojectionofanirregular3Dobject(thefinger)ontoa2Dflatplaneintroducedistortions,noise,andinconsistenciesinthecapturedfingerprintimage.Theseproblemsresultininconsistentandnon-uniformirregularitiesintheimage.[28]Duringeachacquisition,therefore,theresultsoftheimagingaredifferentanduncontrollable.Therepresentationofthesamefingerprintchangeseverytimethefingerisplacedonthesensorplate,increasingthecomplexityofanyattempttomatchfingerprints,impairingthesystemperformanceandconsequently,limitingthewidespreaduseofthisbiometrictechnology. Inordertoovercometheseproblems,asof2010,non-contactortouchless3Dfingerprintscannershavebeendeveloped.Acquiringdetailed3Dinformation,3Dfingerprintscannerstakeadigitalapproachtotheanalogprocessofpressingorrollingthefinger.Bymodellingthedistancebetweenneighboringpoints,thefingerprintcanbeimagedataresolutionhighenoughtorecordallthenecessarydetail.[29] Fingerprintingdeadhumans Thehumanskinitself,whichisaregeneratingorganuntildeath,andenvironmentalfactorssuchaslotionsandcosmetics,posechallengeswhenfingerprintingahuman.Followingthedeathofahumantheskindriesandcools.Obtainingfingerprintsfromadeadhuman,toaididentification,ishinderedbythefactthatonlythecoronerormedicalexaminerisallowedtoexaminethedeadbody.Fingerprintsofdeadhumansmaybeobtainedduringanautopsy.[30] Latentfingerprintdetection Useoffinepowderandbrushtoreveallatentfingerprints Fingerprintdustingofaburglaryscene Inthe1930scriminalinvestigatorsintheUnitedStatesfirstdiscoveredtheexistenceoflatentfingerprintsonthesurfacesoffabrics,mostnotablyontheinsidesofglovesdiscardedbyperpetrators.[31] Sincethelatenineteenthcentury,fingerprintidentificationmethodshavebeenusedbypoliceagenciesaroundtheworldtoidentifysuspectedcriminalsaswellasthevictimsofcrime.Thebasisofthetraditionalfingerprintingtechniqueissimple.Theskinonthepalmarsurfaceofthehandsandfeetformsridges,so-calledpapillaryridges,inpatternsthatareuniquetoeachindividualandwhichdonotchangeovertime.Evenidenticaltwins(whosharetheirDNA)donothaveidenticalfingerprints.Thebestwaytorenderlatentfingerprintsvisible,sothattheycanbephotographed,canbecomplexandmaydepend,forexample,onthetypeofsurfacesonwhichtheyhavebeenleft.Itisgenerallynecessarytousea"developer",usuallyapowderorchemicalreagent,toproduceahighdegreeofvisualcontrastbetweentheridgepatternsandthesurfaceonwhichafingerprinthasbeendeposited. Developingagentsdependonthepresenceoforganicmaterialsorinorganicsaltsfortheireffectiveness,althoughthewaterdepositedmayalsotakeakeyrole.Fingerprintsaretypicallyformedfromtheaqueous-basedsecretionsoftheeccrineglandsofthefingersandpalmswithadditionalmaterialfromsebaceousglandsprimarilyfromtheforehead.Thislattercontaminationresultsfromthecommonhumanbehaviorsoftouchingthefaceandhair.Theresultinglatentfingerprintsconsistusuallyofasubstantialproportionofwaterwithsmalltracesofaminoacidsandchloridesmixedwithafatty,sebaceouscomponentwhichcontainsanumberoffattyacidsandtriglycerides.Detectionofasmallproportionofreactiveorganicsubstancessuchasureaandaminoacidsisfarfromeasy. Fingerprintsatacrimescenemaybedetectedbysimplepowders,orbychemicalsappliedinsitu.Morecomplextechniques,usuallyinvolvingchemicals,canbeappliedinspecialistlaboratoriestoappropriatearticlesremovedfromacrimescene.Withadvancesinthesemoresophisticatedtechniques,someofthemoreadvancedcrimesceneinvestigationservicesfromaroundtheworldwere,asof2010,reportingthat50%ormoreofthefingerprintsrecoveredfromacrimescenehadbeenidentifiedasaresultoflaboratory-basedtechniques. Acityfingerprintidentificationroom Forensiclaboratories Althoughtherearehundredsofreportedtechniquesforfingerprintdetection,manyoftheseareonlyofacademicinterestandthereareonlyaround20reallyeffectivemethodswhicharecurrentlyinuseinthemoreadvancedfingerprintlaboratoriesaroundtheworld. Someofthesetechniques,suchasninhydrin,diazafluorenoneandvacuummetaldeposition,showgreatsensitivityandareusedoperationally.Somefingerprintreagentsarespecific,forexampleninhydrinordiazafluorenonereactingwithaminoacids.Otherssuchasethylcyanoacrylatepolymerisation,workapparentlybywater-basedcatalysisandpolymergrowth.Vacuummetaldepositionusinggoldandzinchasbeenshowntobenon-specific,butcandetectfatlayersasthinasonemolecule. Moremundanemethods,suchastheapplicationoffinepowders,workbyadhesiontosebaceousdepositsandpossiblyaqueousdepositsinthecaseoffreshfingerprints.Theaqueouscomponentofafingerprint,whilstinitiallysometimesmakingupover90%oftheweightofthefingerprint,canevaporatequitequicklyandmayhavemostlygoneafter24hours.Followingworkontheuseofargonionlasersforfingerprintdetection,[32]awiderangeoffluorescencetechniqueshavebeenintroduced,primarilyfortheenhancementofchemicallydevelopedfingerprints;theinherentfluorescenceofsomelatentfingerprintsmayalsobedetected.Fingerprintscanforexamplebevisualizedin3Dandwithoutchemicalsbytheuseofinfraredlasers.[33] AcomprehensivemanualoftheoperationalmethodsoffingerprintenhancementwaslastpublishedbytheUKHomeOfficeScientificDevelopmentBranchin2013andisusedwidelyaroundtheworld.[34] Atechniqueproposedin2007aimstoidentifyanindividual'sethnicity,sex,anddietarypatterns.[35] Crimesceneinvestigations Afingerprintonacartridgecase AKelvinprobescanofthesamecartridgecasewiththefingerprintdetected.TheKelvinprobecaneasilycopewiththeroundsurfaceofthecartridgecase. TheapplicationofthenewscanningKelvinprobe(SKP)fingerprintingtechnique,whichmakesnophysicalcontactwiththefingerprintanddoesnotrequiretheuseofdevelopers,hasthepotentialtoallowfingerprintstoberecordedwhilststillleavingintactmaterialthatcouldsubsequentlybesubjectedtoDNAanalysis.AforensicallyusableprototypewasunderdevelopmentatSwanseaUniversityduring2010,inresearchthatwasgeneratingsignificantinterestfromtheBritishHomeOfficeandanumberofdifferentpoliceforcesacrosstheUK,aswellasinternationally.Thehopeisthatthisinstrumentcouldeventuallybemanufacturedinsufficientlylargenumberstobewidelyusedbyforensicteamsworldwide.[36][37] Detectionofdruguse Thesecretions,skinoilsanddeadcellsinahumanfingerprintcontainresiduesofvariouschemicalsandtheirmetabolitespresentinthebody.Thesecanbedetectedandusedforforensicpurposes.Forexample,thefingerprintsoftobaccosmokerscontaintracesofcotinine,anicotinemetabolite;theyalsocontaintracesofnicotineitself.Cautionshouldbeused,asitspresencemaybecausedbymerecontactofthefingerwithatobaccoproduct.Bytreatingthefingerprintwithgoldnanoparticleswithattachedcotinineantibodies,andthensubsequentlywithafluorescentagentattachedtocotinineantibodies,thefingerprintofasmokerbecomesfluorescent;non-smokers'fingerprintsstaydark.[citationneeded]Thesameapproach,asof2010,isbeingtestedforuseinidentifyingheavycoffeedrinkers,cannabissmokers,andusersofvariousotherdrugs.[38][39] Policeforcedatabases Acityfingerprintidentificationoffice MostAmericanlawenforcementagenciesuseWaveletScalarQuantization(WSQ),awavelet-basedsystemforefficientstorageofcompressedfingerprintimagesat500pixelsperinch(ppi).WSQwasdevelopedbytheFBI,theLosAlamosNationalLab,andtheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST).Forfingerprintsrecordedat1000 ppispatialresolution,lawenforcement(includingtheFBI)usesJPEG2000insteadofWSQ.[citationneeded] Validity Latentfingerprintanalysisprocess Fingerprintscollectedatacrimescene,oronitemsofevidencefromacrime,havebeenusedinforensicsciencetoidentifysuspects,victimsandotherpersonswhotouchedasurface.Fingerprintidentificationemergedasanimportantsystemwithinpoliceagenciesinthelate19thcentury,whenitreplacedanthropometricmeasurementsasamorereliablemethodforidentifyingpersonshavingapriorrecord,oftenunderafalsename,inacriminalrecordrepository.[23]Fingerprintinghasservedallgovernmentsworldwideduringthepast100yearsorsotoprovideidentificationofcriminals.Fingerprintsarethefundamentaltoolineverypoliceagencyfortheidentificationofpeoplewithacriminalhistory.[23] Thevalidityofforensicfingerprintevidencehasbeenchallengedbyacademics,judgesandthemedia.IntheUnitedStatesfingerprintexaminershavenotdevelopeduniformstandardsfortheidentificationofanindividualbasedonmatchingfingerprints.Insomecountrieswherefingerprintsarealsousedincriminalinvestigations,fingerprintexaminersarerequiredtomatchanumberofidentificationpointsbeforeamatchisaccepted.InEngland16identificationpointsarerequiredandinFrance12,tomatchtwofingerprintsandidentifyanindividual.Point-countingmethodshavebeenchallengedbysomefingerprintexaminersbecausetheyfocussolelyonthelocationofparticularcharacteristicsinfingerprintsthataretobematched.Fingerprintexaminersmayalsoupholdtheonedissimilaritydoctrine,whichholdsthatifthereisonedissimilaritybetweentwofingerprints,thefingerprintsarenotfromthesamefinger.Furthermore,academicshavearguedthattheerrorrateinmatchingfingerprintshasnotbeenadequatelystudied.Andithasbeenarguedthatfingerprintevidencehasnosecurestatisticalfoundation.[40]Researchhasbeenconductedintowhetherexpertscanobjectivelyfocusonfeatureinformationinfingerprintswithoutbeingmisledbyextraneousinformation,suchascontext.[2] Fingerprintscantheoreticallybeforgedandplantedatcrimescenes.[41] Professionalcertification Fingerprintingwasthebasisuponwhichthefirstforensicprofessionalorganizationwasformed,theInternationalAssociationforIdentification(IAI),in1915.[42]Thefirstprofessionalcertificationprogramforforensicscientistswasestablishedin1977,theIAI'sCertifiedLatentPrintExaminerprogram,whichissuedcertificatestothosemeetingstringentcriteriaandhadthepowertorevokecertificationwhereanindividual'sperformancewarrantedit.[43]Otherforensicdisciplineshavefollowedsuitandestablishedtheirowncertificationprograms.[43] History Antiquityandthemedievalperiod Fingerprintshavebeenfoundonancientclaytablets,[44]seals,andpottery.[45][46]TheyhavealsobeenfoundonthewallsofEgyptiantombsandonMinoan,Greek,andChinese[47]pottery.InancientChinaofficialsauthenticatedgovernmentdocumentswiththeirfingerprints.Inabout200BCfingerprintswereusedtosignwrittencontractsinBabylon.[48]Fingerprintsfrom3D-scansofcuneiformtabletsareextractedusingtheGigaMeshSoftwareFramework.[49] WiththeadventofsilkandpaperinChina,partiestoalegalcontractimpressedtheirhandprintsonthedocument.Sometimebefore851CE,anArabmerchantinChina,AbuZaydHasan,witnessedChinesemerchantsusingfingerprintstoauthenticateloans.[50] Althoughancientpeoplesprobablydidnotrealizethatfingerprintscoulduniquelyidentifyindividuals,[51]referencesfromtheageoftheBabyloniankingHammurabi(reigned1792–1750BCE)indicatethatlawofficialswouldtakethefingerprintsofpeoplewhohadbeenarrested.[52]DuringChina'sQinDynasty,recordshaveshownthatofficialstookhandprintsandfootprintsaswellasfingerprintsasevidencefromacrimescene.[53]In650theChinesehistorianKiaKung-Yenremarkedthatfingerprintscouldbeusedasameansofauthentication.[54]InhisJamial-Tawarikh(UniversalHistory),theIranianphysicianRashid-al-DinHamadani(1247–1318)referstotheChinesepracticeofidentifyingpeopleviatheirfingerprints,commenting:"Experienceshowsthatnotwoindividualshavefingersexactlyalike."[55] Europeinthe17thand18thcenturies Fromthelate16thcenturyonwards,Europeanacademicsattemptedtoincludefingerprintsinscientificstudies.Butplausibleconclusionscouldbeestablishedonlyfromthemid-17thcenturyonwards.In1686theprofessorofanatomyattheUniversityofBolognaMarcelloMalpighiidentifiedridges,spiralsandloopsinfingerprintsleftonsurfaces.In1788aGermananatomistJohannChristophAndreasMayerwasthefirstEuropeantoconcludethatfingerprintswereuniquetoeachindividual.[56]In1880HenryFauldssuggested,basedonhisstudies,thatfingerprintsareuniquetoahuman.[57] 19thcentury NinefingerprintpatternsidentifiedbyJanEvangelistaPurkyně FingerprintstakenbyWilliamHerschel1859/60 FingerprintsusedinsteadofsignaturesonanIndianlegaldocumentof1952 In1823JanEvangelistaPurkyněidentifiedninefingerprintpatterns.Theninepatternsincludethetentedarch,theloop,andthewhorl,whichinmodern-dayforensicsareconsideredridgedetails.[58]In1840,followingthemurderofLordWilliamRussell,aprovincialdoctor,RobertBlakeOverton,wrotetoScotlandYardsuggestingcheckingforfingerprints.[59]In1853theGermananatomistGeorgvonMeissner(1829–1905)studiedfrictionridges,[60]andin1858SirWilliamJamesHerschelinitiatedfingerprintinginIndia.In1877hefirstinstitutedtheuseoffingerprintsoncontractsanddeedstopreventtherepudiationofsignaturesinHooghlynearKolkata[61]andheregisteredgovernmentpensioners'fingerprintstopreventthecollectionofmoneybyrelativesafterapensioner'sdeath.[62] In1880HenryFaulds,aScottishsurgeoninaTokyohospital,publishedhisfirstpaperontheusefulnessoffingerprintsforidentificationandproposedamethodtorecordthemwithprintingink.[63]ReturningtoGreatBritainin1886,heofferedtheconcepttotheMetropolitanPoliceinLondonbutitwasdismissedatthattime.[64]Upuntiltheearly1890spoliceforcesintheUnitedStatesandontheEuropeancontinentcouldnotreliablyidentifycriminalstotracktheircriminalrecord.[65]FrancisGaltonpublishedadetailedstatisticalmodeloffingerprintanalysisandidentificationinhis1892bookFingerPrints.Hehadcalculatedthatthechanceofa"falsepositive"(twodifferentindividualshavingthesamefingerprints)wasabout1in64 billion.[66]In1892JuanVucetich,anArgentinechiefpoliceofficer,createdthefirstmethodofrecordingthefingerprintsofindividualsonfile.Inthatsameyear,FranciscaRojaswasfoundinahousewithneckinjuries,whilsthertwosonswerefounddeadwiththeirthroatscut.Rojasaccusedaneighbour,butdespitebrutalinterrogation,thisneighbourwouldnotconfesstothecrimes.InspectorÁlvarez,acolleagueofVucetich,wenttothesceneandfoundabloodythumbmarkonadoor.WhenitwascomparedwithRojas'prints,itwasfoundtobeidenticalwithherrightthumb.Shethenconfessedtothemurderofhersons.[67]Thiswasthefirstknownmurdercasetobesolvedusingfingerprintanalysis.[68] InKolkataafingerprintBureauwasestablishedin1897,aftertheCounciloftheGovernorGeneralapprovedacommitteereportthatfingerprintsshouldbeusedfortheclassificationofcriminalrecords.ThebureauemployeesAzizulHaqueandHemChandraBosehavebeencreditedwiththeprimarydevelopmentofafingerprintclassificationsystemeventuallynamedaftertheirsupervisor,SirEdwardRichardHenry.[69] 20thcentury TheFrenchscientistPaul-JeanCoulierdevelopedamethodtotransferlatentfingerprintsonsurfacestopaperusingiodinefuming.ItallowedtheLondonScotlandYardtostartfingerprintingindividualsandidentifycriminalsusingfingerprintsin1901.Soonafter,AmericanpolicedepartmentsadoptedthesamemethodandfingerprintidentificationbecameastandardpracticeintheUnitedStates.[65]TheScheffercaseof1902isthefirstcaseoftheidentification,arrest,andconvictionofamurdererbaseduponfingerprintevidence.AlphonseBertillonidentifiedthethiefandmurdererScheffer,whohadpreviouslybeenarrestedandhisfingerprintsfiledsomemonthsbefore,fromthefingerprintsfoundonafracturedglassshowcase,afteratheftinadentist'sapartmentwherethedentist'semployeewasfounddead.Itwasabletobeprovedincourtthatthefingerprintshadbeenmadeaftertheshowcasewasbroken.[70] TheidentificationofindividualsthroughfingerprintsforlawenforcementhasbeenconsideredessentialintheUnitedStatessincethebeginningofthe20thcentury.Bodyidentificationusingfingerprintshasalsobeenvaluableintheaftermathofnaturaldisastersandanthropogenichazards.[71]IntheUnitedStates,theFBImanagesafingerprintidentificationsystemanddatabasecalledtheIntegratedAutomatedFingerprintIdentificationSystem(IAFIS),whichcurrentlyholdsthefingerprintsandcriminalrecordsofover51 millioncriminalrecordsubjectsandover1.5 millioncivil(non-criminal)fingerprintrecords.OBIM,formerlyU.S.VISIT,holdsthelargestrepositoryofbiometricidentifiersintheU.S.governmentatover260 millionindividualidentities.[72]Whenitwasdeployedin2004,thisrepository,knownastheAutomatedBiometricIdentificationSystem(IDENT),storedbiometricdataintheformoftwo-fingerrecords.Between2005and2009,theDHStransitionedtoaten-printrecordstandardinordertoestablishinteroperabilitywithIAFIS.[73] FemaleclericalemployeesoftheLosAngelesPoliceDepartmentbeingfingerprintedandphotographedin1928 In1910,EdmondLocardestablishedthefirstforensiclabinFrance.[65]Criminalsmaywearglovestoavoidleavingfingerprints.However,theglovesthemselvescanleaveprintsthatareasuniqueashumanfingerprints.Aftercollectinggloveprints,lawenforcementcanmatchthemtoglovesthattheyhavecollectedasevidenceortoprintscollectedatothercrimescenes.[74]Inmanyjurisdictionstheactofwearingglovesitselfwhilecommittingacrimecanbeprosecutedasaninchoateoffense.[75] Useoffingerprintsinschools Furtherinformation:Biometricsinschools Thenon-governmentalorganization(NGO)PrivacyInternationalin2002madethecautionaryannouncementthattensofthousandsofUKschoolchildrenwerebeingfingerprintedbyschools,oftenwithouttheknowledgeorconsentoftheirparents.[76]Thatsameyear,thesupplierMicroLibrarianSystems,whichusesatechnologysimilartothatusedinUSprisonsandtheGermanmilitary,estimatedthat350schoolsthroughoutBritainwereusingsuchsystemstoreplacelibrarycards.[76]By2007,itwasestimatedthat3,500schoolswereusingsuchsystems.[77]UndertheUnitedKingdomDataProtectionAct,schoolsintheUKdonothavetoaskparentalconsenttoallowsuchpracticestotakeplace.Parentsopposedtofingerprintingmaybringonlyindividualcomplaintsagainstschools.[78]Inresponsetoacomplaintwhichtheyarecontinuingtopursue,in2010theEuropeanCommissionexpressed'significantconcerns'overtheproportionalityandnecessityofthepracticeandthelackofjudicialredress,indicatingthatthepracticemaybreaktheEuropeanUniondataprotectiondirective.[79] InMarch2007,theUKgovernmentwasconsideringfingerprintingallchildrenaged11to15andaddingtheprintstoagovernmentdatabaseaspartofanewpassportandIDcardschemeanddisallowingoppositionforprivacyconcerns.Allfingerprintstakenwouldbecross-checkedagainstprintsfrom900,000unsolvedcrimes.ShadowHomesecretaryDavidDaviscalledtheplan"sinister".TheLiberalDemocrathomeaffairsspokesmanNickCleggcriticised"thedeterminationtobuildasurveillancestatebehindthebacksoftheBritishpeople".[77]TheUK'sjunioreducationministerLordAdonisdefendedtheuseoffingerprintsbyschools,totrackschoolattendanceaswellasaccesstoschoolmealsandlibraries,andreassuredtheHouseofLordsthatthechildren'sfingerprintshadbeentakenwiththeconsentoftheparentsandwouldbedestroyedoncechildrenlefttheschool.[80]AnEarlyDayMotionwhichcalledontheUKGovernmenttoconductafullandopenconsultationwithstakeholdersabouttheuseofbiometricsinschools,securedthesupportof85MembersofParliament(EarlyDayMotion686).[81]FollowingtheestablishmentintheUnitedKingdomofaConservativeandLiberalDemocraticcoalitiongovernmentinMay2010,theUKIDcardschemewasscrapped.[82] SeriousconcernsaboutthesecurityimplicationsofusingconventionalbiometrictemplatesinschoolshavebeenraisedbyanumberofleadingITsecurityexperts,[83]oneofwhomhasvoicedtheopinionthat"itisabsolutelyprematuretobeginusing'conventionalbiometrics'inschools".[84]Thevendorsofbiometricsystemsclaimthattheirproductsbringbenefitstoschoolssuchasimprovedreadingskills,decreasedwaittimesinlunchlinesandincreasedrevenues.[85]Theydonotciteindependentresearchtosupportthisview.Oneeducationspecialistwrotein2007:"Ihavenotbeenabletofindasinglepieceofpublishedresearchwhichsuggeststhattheuseofbiometricsinschoolspromoteshealthyeatingorimprovesreadingskillsamongstchildren...Thereisabsolutelynoevidenceforsuchclaims".[86] TheOttawaPoliceinCanadahaveadvisedparentswhofeartheirchildrenmaybekidnappedtofingerprinttheirchildren.[87] Absenceormutilationoffingerprints Averyraremedicalcondition,adermatoglyphia,ischaracterizedbytheabsenceoffingerprints.Affectedpersonshavecompletelysmoothfingertips,palms,toesandsoles,butnoothermedicalsignsorsymptoms.[88]A2011studyindicatedthatadermatoglyphiaiscausedbytheimproperexpressionoftheproteinSMARCAD1.[89]Theconditionhasbeencalledimmigrationdelaydiseasebytheresearchersdescribingit,becausethecongenitallackoffingerprintscausesdelayswhenaffectedpersonsattempttoprovetheiridentitywhiletraveling.[88]Onlyfivefamilieswiththisconditionhadbeendescribedasof2011.[90] PeoplewithNaegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohnsyndromeanddermatopathiapigmentosareticularis,whicharebothformsofectodermaldysplasia,alsohavenofingerprints.Bothoftheseraregeneticsyndromesproduceothersignsandsymptomsaswell,suchasthin,brittlehair. CriminalAlvinKarpishadhisfingerprintssurgicallyremovedin1933 Theanti-cancermedicationcapecitabinemaycausethelossoffingerprints.[91]Swellingofthefingers,suchasthatcausedbybeestings,willinsomecasescausethetemporarydisappearanceoffingerprints,thoughtheywillreturnwhentheswellingrecedes. Sincetheelasticityofskindecreaseswithage,manyseniorcitizenshavefingerprintsthataredifficulttocapture.Theridgesgetthicker;theheightbetweenthetopoftheridgeandthebottomofthefurrowgetsnarrow,sothereislessprominence.[92] Fingerprintscanbeerasedpermanentlyandthiscanpotentiallybeusedbycriminalstoreducetheirchanceofconviction.Erasurecanbeachievedinavarietyofwaysincludingsimplyburningthefingertips,usingacidsandadvancedtechniquessuchasplasticsurgery.[93][94][95][96][97]JohnDillingerburnedhisfingerswithacid,butprintstakenduringapreviousarrestandupondeathstillexhibitedalmostcompleterelationtooneanother.[98] Fingerprintverification Ridgeending Bifurcation Shortridge(dot) Fingerprintscanbecapturedasgraphicalridgeandvalleypatterns.Becauseoftheiruniquenessandpermanence,fingerprintsemergedasthemostwidelyusedbiometricidentifierinthe2000s.Automatedfingerprintverificationsystemsweredevelopedtomeettheneedsoflawenforcementandtheirusebecamemorewidespreadincivilianapplications.Despitebeingdeployedmorewidely,reliableautomatedfingerprintverificationremainedachallengeandwasextensivelyresearchedinthecontextofpatternrecognitionandimageprocessing.Theuniquenessofafingerprintcanbeestablishedbytheoverallpatternofridgesandvalleys,orthelogicalridgediscontinuitiesknownasminutiae.Inthe2000sminutiaefeatureswereconsideredthemostdiscriminatingandreliablefeatureofafingerprint.Therefore,therecognitionofminutiaefeaturesbecamethemostcommonbasisforautomatedfingerprintverification.Themostwidelyusedminutiaefeaturesusedforautomatedfingerprintverificationweretheridgeendingandtheridgebifurcation.[99] Patterns Thethreebasicpatternsoffingerprintridgesarethearch,loop,andwhorl: Arch:Theridgesenterfromonesideofthefinger,riseinthecenterforminganarc,andthenexittheothersideofthefinger. Loop:Theridgesenterfromonesideofafinger,formacurve,andthenexitonthatsameside. Whorl:Ridgesformcircularlyaroundacentralpointonthefinger. Scientistshavefoundthatfamilymembersoftensharethesamegeneralfingerprintpatterns,leadingtothebeliefthatthesepatternsareinherited.[100] Minutiaefeatures Featuresoffingerprintridges,calledminutiae,include:[101] Ridgeending:Theabruptendofaridge Bifurcation:Asingleridgedividingintwo Shortorindependentridge:Aridgethatcommences,travelsashortdistanceandthenends Islandordot:Asinglesmallridgeinsideashortridgeorridgeendingthatisnotconnectedtoallotherridges Lakeorridgeenclosure:Asingleridgethatbifurcatesandreunitesshortlyafterwardtocontinueasasingleridge Spur:Abifurcationwithashortridgebranchingoffalongerridge Bridgeorcrossover:Ashortridgethatrunsbetweentwoparallelridges Delta:AY-shapedridgemeeting Core:Acircleintheridgepattern Fingerprintsensors Mainarticle:Fingerprintscanner Afingerprintsensorisanelectronicdeviceusedtocaptureadigitalimageofthefingerprintpattern.Thecapturedimageiscalledalivescan.Thislivescanisdigitallyprocessedtocreateabiometrictemplate(acollectionofextractedfeatures)whichisstoredandusedformatching.Manytechnologieshavebeenusedincludingoptical,capacitive,RF,thermal,piezoresistive,ultrasonic,piezoelectric,andMEMS.[102] Opticalscannerstakeavisualimageofthefingerprintusingadigitalcamera. CapacitiveorCMOSscannersusecapacitorsandthuselectricalcurrenttoformanimageofthefingerprint. Ultrasoundfingerprintscannersusehighfrequencysoundwavestopenetratetheepidermal(outer)layeroftheskin. Thermalscannerssensethetemperaturedifferencesonthecontactsurface,inbetweenfingerprintridgesandvalleys. Consumerelectronicsloginauthentication ThefingerprintsensorofaLenovoThinkPadT440p,releasedin2013 Since2000electronicfingerprintreadershavebeenintroducedasconsumerelectronicssecurityapplications.Fingerprintsensorscouldbeusedforloginauthenticationandtheidentificationofcomputerusers.However,somelesssophisticatedsensorshavebeendiscoveredtobevulnerabletoquitesimplemethodsofdeception,suchasfakefingerprintscastingels.In2006,fingerprintsensorsgainedpopularityinthelaptopmarket.Built-insensorsinlaptops,suchasThinkPads,VAIO,HPPavilionandEliteBooklaptops,andothersalsodoubleasmotiondetectorsfordocumentscrolling,likethescrollwheel.[103] TwoofthefirstsmartphonemanufacturerstointegratefingerprintrecognitionintotheirphoneswereMotorolawiththeAtrix4Gin2011andApplewiththeiPhone5SonSeptember10,2013.Onemonthafter,HTClaunchedtheOneMax,whichalsoincludedfingerprintrecognition.InApril2014,SamsungreleasedtheGalaxyS5,whichintegratedafingerprintsensoronthehomebutton.[104] FollowingthereleaseoftheiPhone5Smodel,agroupofGermanhackersannouncedonSeptember21,2013,thattheyhadbypassedApple'snewTouchIDfingerprintsensorbyphotographingafingerprintfromaglasssurfaceandusingthatcapturedimageasverification.Thespokesmanforthegroupstated:"Wehopethatthisfinallyputstoresttheillusionspeoplehaveaboutfingerprintbiometrics.Itisplainstupidtousesomethingthatyoucan'tchangeandthatyouleaveeverywhereeverydayasasecuritytoken."[105]InSeptember2015,AppleincludedanewversionofthefingerprintscannerintheiPhonehomebuttonwiththeiPhone6S.TheuseoftheTouchIDfingerprintscannerwasoptionalandcouldbeconfiguredtounlockthescreenorpayformobileappspurchases.[106]SinceDecember2015,cheapersmartphoneswithfingerprintrecognitionhavebeenreleased,suchasthe$100UMIFair.[104]Samsungintroducedfingerprintsensorstoitsmid-rangeAseriessmartphonesin2014.[107] By2017HewlettPackard,Asus,Huawei,LenovoandApplewereusingfingerprintreadersintheirlaptops.[108][109][110]SynapticssaystheSecurePadsensorisnowavailableforOEMstostartbuildingintotheirlaptops.[111]In2018,Synapticsrevealedthattheirin-displayfingerprintsensorswouldbefeaturedonthenewVivoX21UDsmartphone.Thiswasthefirstmass-producedfingerprintsensortobeintegratedintotheentiretouchscreendisplay,ratherthanasaseparatesensor.[112] Video Videoshavebecomeapronouncedwayofidentifyinginformation.Therearefeaturesinvideosthatlookathowintensecertainpartsofaframearecomparedtootherswhichhelpwithidentification.[113] Algorithms Matchingalgorithmsareusedtocomparepreviouslystoredtemplatesoffingerprintsagainstcandidatefingerprintsforauthenticationpurposes.Inordertodothiseithertheoriginalimagemustbedirectlycomparedwiththecandidateimageorcertainfeaturesmustbecompared.[114] Pre-processing Pre-processingenhancesthequalityofanimagebyfilteringandremovingextraneousnoise.Theminutiae-basedalgorithmisonlyeffectivewith8-bitgrayscalefingerprintimages.Onereasonforthisisthatan8-bitgrayfingerprintimageisafundamentalbasewhenconvertingtheimagetoa1-bitimagewithvalue1forridgesandvalue0forfurrows.Thisprocessallowsforenhancededgedetectionsothefingerprintisrevealedinhighcontrast,withtheridgeshighlightedinblackandthefurrowsinwhite.Tofurtheroptimizetheinputimage'squality,twomorestepsarerequired:minutiaeextractionandfalseminutiaeremoval.Theminutiaeextractioniscarriedoutbyapplyingaridge-thinningalgorithmthatremovesredundantpixelsofridges.Asaresult,thethinnedridgesofthefingerprintimagearemarkedwithauniqueIDtofacilitatetheconductionoffurtheroperations.Aftertheminutiaeextraction,thefalseminutiaeremovaliscarriedout.Thelackoftheamountofinkandthecrosslinkamongtheridgescouldcausefalseminutiaethatledtoinaccuracyinfingerprintrecognitionprocess.[citationneeded] Pattern-based(orimage-based)algorithms Patternbasedalgorithmscomparethebasicfingerprintpatterns(arch,whorl,andloop)betweenapreviouslystoredtemplateandacandidatefingerprint.Thisrequiresthattheimagescanbealignedinthesameorientation.Todothis,thealgorithmfindsacentralpointinthefingerprintimageandcentersonthat.Inapattern-basedalgorithm,thetemplatecontainsthetype,size,andorientationofpatternswithinthealignedfingerprintimage.Thecandidatefingerprintimageisgraphicallycomparedwiththetemplatetodeterminethedegreetowhichtheymatch.[115] Inotherspecies Someotheranimalshaveevolvedtheirownuniqueprints,especiallythosewhoselifestyleinvolvesclimbingorgraspingwetobjects;theseincludemanyprimates,suchasgorillasandchimpanzees,Australiankoalas,andaquaticmammalspeciessuchastheNorthAmericanfisher.[116]Accordingtoonestudy,evenwithanelectronmicroscope,itcanbequitedifficulttodistinguishbetweenthefingerprintsofakoalaandahuman.[117] Infiction MarkTwain MarkTwain'smemoirLifeontheMississippi(1883),notablemainlyforitsaccountoftheauthor'stimeontheriver,alsorecountspartsofhislaterlifeandincludestalltalesandstoriesallegedlytoldtohim.Amongthemisaninvolved,melodramaticaccountofamurderinwhichthekillerisidentifiedbyathumbprint.[118]Twain'snovelPudd'nheadWilson,publishedin1893,includesacourtroomdramathatturnsonfingerprintidentification. Crimefiction Theuseoffingerprintsincrimefictionhas,ofcourse,keptpacewithitsuseinreal-lifedetection.SirArthurConanDoylewroteashortstoryabouthiscelebratedsleuthSherlockHolmeswhichfeaturesafingerprint:"TheNorwoodBuilder"isa1903shortstorysetin1894andinvolvesthediscoveryofabloodyfingerprintwhichhelpsHolmestoexposetherealcriminalandfreehisclient. TheBritishdetectivewriterR.AustinFreeman'sfirstThorndykenovelTheRedThumb-Markwaspublishedin1907andfeaturesabloodyfingerprintleftonapieceofpapertogetherwithaparcelofdiamondsinsideasafe-box.Thesebecomethecenterofamedico-legalinvestigationledbyDr.Thorndyke,whodefendstheaccusedwhosefingerprintmatchesthatonthepaper,afterthediamondsarestolen. Filmandtelevision InthetelevisionseriesBonanza(1959–1973)theChinesecharacterHopSinguseshisknowledgeoffingerprintstofreeLittleJoefromamurdercharge. The1997movieMeninBlackrequiredAgentJtoremovehistenfingerprintsbyputtinghishandsonametalball,anactiondeemednecessarybytheMIBagencytoremovetheidentityofitsagents. Inthe2009sciencefictionmovieColdSouls,amulewhosmugglessoulswearslatexfingerprintstofrustrateairportsecurityterminals.Shecanchangeheridentitybysimplychangingherwigandlatexfingerprints. 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