Particulates - Wikipedia

The smaller PM2.5 were particularly deadly, with an 18% increase in lung cancer per 5 μg/m3 (95% CI [0.96–1.46]) as it can penetrate ... Particulates FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Thisarticleisaboutparticlessuspendedinair.Forgeneraldiscussionofparticulatetypes,seeParticle§ Distributionofparticles. Forotheruses,seeParticulates(disambiguation). MicroscopicsolidorliquidmattersuspendedintheEarth'satmosphere Thisdiagramshowstypes,andsizedistributioninmicrometres(μm),ofatmosphericparticulatematter. PartofaseriesonPollution Airpollution Acidrain Airqualityindex Atmosphericdispersionmodeling Chlorofluorocarbon Exhaustgas Haze Indoorair Internalcombustionengine Globaldimming Globaldistillation Ozonedepletion Particulates Persistentorganicpollutant Smog Aerosol Soot Volatileorganiccompound Biologicalpollution Biologicalhazard Geneticpollution Introducedspecies(Invasivespecies) Electromagneticpollution Light Ecologicallightpollution Overillumination Radiospectrumpollution Naturalpollution Ozone Radiumandradonintheenvironment Volcanicash Wildfire Noisepollution Transportation Land Water Air Rail Sustainabletransport Urban Sonar Marinemammalsandsonar Industrial Military Abstract Noisecontrol Radiationpollution Actinides Bioremediation Depleteduranium Fissionproduct Nuclearfallout Plutonium Poisoning Radioactivity Uranium Electromagneticradiationandhealth Radioactivewaste Soilpollution Agriculturalpollution Herbicides Manurewaste Pesticides Landdegradation Bioremediation Defecation Electricalresistanceheating Guidelinevalues Phytoremediation Solidwastepollution Biodegradablewaste Brownwaste Electronicwaste Batteryrecycling Foodwaste Greenwaste Hazardouswaste Biomedicalwaste Chemicalwaste Constructionwaste Leadpoisoning Mercurypoisoning Toxicwaste Industrialwaste Leadsmelting Litter Mining Coalmining Goldmining Surfacemining Deepseamining Miningwaste Uraniummining Municipalsolidwaste Garbage Nanomaterials Plasticpollution Microplastics Packagingwaste Post-consumerwaste Wastemanagement Landfill Thermaltreatment Spacepollution Satellite Thermalpollution Urbanheatisland Visualpollution Airtravel Clutter(advertising) Trafficsigns Overheadpowerlines Vandalism Warpollution Chemicalwarfare Herbicidalwarfare(AgentOrange) Nuclearholocaust(Nuclearfallout-nuclearfamine-nuclearwinter) Scorchedearth Unexplodedordnance Warandenvironmentallaw Waterpollution Agriculturalwastewater Diseases Eutrophication Firewater Freshwater Groundwater Hypoxia Industrialwastewater Marine debris Monitoring Nonpointsourcepollution Nutrientpollution Oceanacidification Oilspill Pharmaceuticals Septictanks Sewage Septictanks Pitlatrine Shipping Stagnation Sulfurwater Surfacerunoff Turbidity Urbanrunoff Waterquality MiscLists Diseases Lawbycountry Mostpollutedcities Treaties Categories Bycountry  Environmentportal  Ecologyportalvte Particulates–alsoknownasatmosphericaerosolparticles,atmosphericparticulatematter,particulatematter(PM),orsuspendedparticulatematter(SPM)–aremicroscopicparticlesofsolidorliquidmattersuspendedintheair.Thetermaerosolcommonlyreferstotheparticulate/airmixture,asopposedtotheparticulatematteralone.[1]Sourcesofparticulatemattercanbenaturaloranthropogenic.[2]Theyhaveimpactsonclimateandprecipitationthatadverselyaffecthumanhealth,inwaysadditionaltodirectinhalation. Typesofatmosphericparticlesincludesuspendedparticulatematter;thoracicandrespirableparticles;[3]inhalablecoarseparticles,designatedPM10,whicharecoarseparticleswithadiameterof10micrometers(μm)orless;fineparticles,designatedPM2.5,withadiameterof2.5 μmorless;[4]ultrafineparticles,withadiameterof100 nmorless;andsoot. TheIARCandWHOdesignateairborneparticulatesasaGroup1carcinogen.[5]Particulatesarethemostharmfulform(otherthanultra-fines)ofairpollution[6]duetotheirabilitytopenetratedeepintothelungs,bloodstreamsandbrain,causinghealthproblemsincludingheartattacks,respiratorydisease,andprematuredeath.[7]In2013,astudyinvolving312,944peopleinnineEuropeancountriesrevealedthattherewasnosafelevelofparticulatesandthatforeveryincreaseof10μg/m3inPM10,thelungcancerraterose22%(95%CI[1.03–1.45]).ThesmallerPM2.5wereparticularlydeadly,withan18%increaseinlungcancerper5μg/m3(95%CI[0.96–1.46])asitcanpenetratedeeperintothelungs.[8]WorldwideexposuretoPM2.5contributedto4.1milliondeathsfromheartdiseaseandstroke,lungcancer,chroniclungdisease,andrespiratoryinfectionsin2016.[9]Overall,ambientparticulatematterranksasthesixthleadingriskfactorforprematuredeathglobally.[10] Contents 1Atmosphericsources 2Composition 3Sizedistribution 4Depositionprocesses 5Controllingtechnologies 6Climateeffects 6.1Aerosolradiative 6.1.1Direct 6.1.2Indirect 6.1.3Semi-direct 6.2Specificaerosolroles 6.2.1Sulfate 6.2.2Blackcarbon 6.3Instances 7Healtheffects 7.1Size,shapeandsolubilitymatter 7.2Healthproblems 7.2.1Anthropogenicfineparticulatesasmainhazard 7.2.2Pregnancy,fetusesandbirtheffects 7.2.3Cardiovascularandrespiratorydisease 7.2.4Cognitivehazards 7.2.5Increaseddeath 7.2.6Racialdisparities 7.2.7Wildfiresmokerisk 7.3Energyindustryknowledgeandresponsetoadversehealtheffects 8Effectsonvegetation 9Regulation 9.1Australia 9.2Canada 9.3China 9.4EuropeanUnion 9.5HongKong 9.6Japan 9.7SouthKorea 9.8Taiwan 9.9UnitedStates 9.9.1California 9.9.2Colorado 10Affectedareas 10.1Australia 10.2China 10.3Ulaanbaatar 11Seealso 12Notes 13References 14Furtherreading 15Externallinks Atmosphericsources[edit] Someparticulatesoccurnaturally,originatingfromvolcanoes,duststorms,forestandgrasslandfires,livingvegetationandseaspray.Humanactivities,suchastheburningoffossilfuelsinvehicles,[11]stubbleburning,powerplants,roaddust,wetcoolingtowersincoolingsystemsandvariousindustrialprocesses,alsogeneratesignificantamountsofparticulates.Coalcombustionindevelopingcountriesistheprimarymethodforheatinghomesandsupplyingenergy.Becausesaltsprayovertheoceansistheoverwhelminglymostcommonformofparticulateintheatmosphere,anthropogenicaerosols—thosemadebyhumanactivities—currentlyaccountforabout10percentofthetotalmassofaerosolsinouratmosphere.[12] Composition[edit] Furtherinformation:Particulateorganicmatter Thecompositionandtoxicityofaerosols,includingparticles,dependsontheirsourceandatmosphericchemistryandvarieswidely. Wind-blownmineraldust[13]tendstobemadeofmineraloxidesandothermaterialblownfromtheEarth'scrust;thisparticulateislight-absorbing.[14]Seasalt[15]isconsideredthesecond-largestcontributorintheglobalaerosolbudget,andconsistsmainlyofsodiumchlorideoriginatedfromseaspray;otherconstituentsofatmosphericseasaltreflectthecompositionofseawater,andthusincludemagnesium,sulfate,calcium,potassium,etc.Inaddition,seasprayaerosolsmaycontainorganiccompounds,whichinfluencetheirchemistry. Somesecondaryparticlesderivefromtheoxidationofprimarygasessuchassulfurandnitrogenoxidesintosulfuricacid(liquid)andnitricacid(gaseous)orfrombiogenicemissions.Theprecursorsfortheseaerosols—i.e.thegasesfromwhichtheyoriginate—mayhaveananthropogenicorigin(fromanyfossilfuelcombustion)andanaturalbiogenicorigin.Inthepresenceofammonia,secondaryaerosolsoftentaketheformofammoniumsalts;i.e.ammoniumsulfateandammoniumnitrate(bothcanbedryorinaqueoussolution);intheabsenceofammonia,secondarycompoundstakeanacidicformassulfuricacid(liquidaerosoldroplets)andnitricacid(atmosphericgas),allofwhichprobablycontributetothehealtheffectsofparticulates.[16] Secondarysulfateandnitrateaerosolsarestronglight-scatterers.[17]Thisismainlybecausethepresenceofsulfateandnitratecausestheaerosolstoincreasetoasizethatscatterslighteffectively. Organicmatter(OM)foundinaerosolscanbeeitherprimaryorsecondary,thelatterpartderivingfromtheoxidationofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs);organicmaterialintheatmospheremayeitherbebiogenicoranthropogenic.Organicmatterinfluencestheatmosphericradiationfieldbybothscatteringandabsorption.Someaerosolsarepredictedtoincludestronglylight-absorbingmaterialandarethoughttoyieldlargepositiveradiativeforcing.Somesecondaryorganicaerosols(SOAs)resultingfromcombustionproductsofinternalcombustionengines,havebeenidentifiedasadangertohealth.[18]Particulatetoxicityhasbeenfoundtovarybyregionandsourcecontributionwhichaffectstheparticleschemicalcomposition. Thechemicalcompositionoftheaerosoldirectlyaffectshowitinteractswithsolarradiation.Thechemicalconstituentswithintheaerosolchangetheoverallrefractiveindex.Therefractiveindexwilldeterminehowmuchlightisscatteredandabsorbed. Thecompositionofparticulatematterthatgenerallycausesvisualeffects,haze,consistsofsulfurdioxide,nitrogenoxides,carbonmonoxide,mineraldust,andorganicmatter.Theparticlesarehygroscopicduetothepresenceofsulfur,andSO2isconvertedtosulfatewhenhighhumidityandlowtemperaturesarepresent.Thiscausesreducedvisibilityandyellowcolor.[19] Sizedistribution[edit] PM2.5andPM10comparedwithahumanhairinagraphicfromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency Furtherinformation:§ Size,shapeandsolubilitymatter Thefalse-colormapsinthemapofdistributionofaerosolparticlesonthispageshowwheretherearenaturalaerosols,humanpollution,oramixtureofboth,monthly. Amongthemostobviouspatternsthatthesizedistributiontimeseriesshowsisthatintheplanet'smostsoutherlylatitudes,nearlyalltheaerosolsarelarge,butinthehighnorthernlatitudes,smalleraerosolsareveryabundant.MostoftheSouthernHemisphereiscoveredbytheocean,wherethelargestsourceofaerosolsisnaturalseasaltfromdriedseaspray.BecausethelandisconcentratedintheNorthernHemisphere,theamountofsmallaerosolsfromfiresandhumanactivitiesisgreatertherethanintheSouthernHemisphere.Overland,patchesoflarge-radiusaerosolsappearoverdesertsandaridregions,mostprominently,theSaharaDesertinNorthAfricaandtheArabianPeninsula,whereduststormsarecommon.Placeswherehuman-triggeredornaturalfireactivityiscommon(land-clearingfiresintheAmazonfromAugust–October,forexample,orlightning-triggeredfiresintheforestsofnorthernCanadainNorthernHemispheresummer)aredominatedbysmalleraerosols.Human-produced(fossilfuel)pollutionislargelyresponsiblefortheareasofsmallaerosolsoverdevelopedareassuchastheeasternUnitedStatesandEurope,especiallyintheirsummer.[20][better source needed] Satellitemeasurementsofaerosols,calledaerosolopticalthickness,arebasedonthefactthattheparticleschangethewaytheatmospherereflectsandabsorbsvisibleandinfraredlight.Asshownintheseventhimageonthispage,anopticalthicknessoflessthan0.1(palestyellow)indicatesacrystalclearskywithmaximumvisibility,whereasavalueof1(reddish-brown)indicatesveryhazyconditions.[21][better source needed] Depositionprocesses[edit] Mainarticle:Deposition(aerosolphysics) Ingeneral,thesmallerandlighteraparticleis,thelongeritwillstayintheair.Largerparticles(greaterthan10micrometersindiameter)tendtosettletothegroundbygravityinamatterofhourswhereasthesmallestparticles(lessthan1micrometer)canstayintheatmosphereforweeksandaremostlyremovedbyprecipitation.Dieselparticulatematterishighestnearthesourceofemission.[22]AnyinformationregardingDPMandtheatmosphere,flora,height,anddistancefrommajorsourcesisusefultodeterminehealtheffects. Controllingtechnologies[edit] PlaymediaFabricfiltersHepaeffect:without(outdoor)andwithfilter(indoor) Mainarticle:DustcollectorAcomplicatedblendofsolidandliquidparticlesresultinparticulatematterandtheseparticulatematteremissionsarehighlyregulatedinmostindustrializedcountries.Duetoenvironmentalconcerns,mostindustriesarerequiredtooperatesomekindofdustcollectionsystemtocontrolparticulateemissions.[23]Thesesystemsincludeinertialcollectors(cyclonicseparators),fabricfiltercollectors(baghouses),electrostaticfiltersusedinfacemasks,[24]wetscrubbers,andelectrostaticprecipitators. Cyclonicseparatorsareusefulforremovinglarge,coarseparticlesandareoftenemployedasafirststepor"pre-cleaner"toothermoreefficientcollectors.Well-designedcyclonicseparatorscanbeveryefficientinremovingevenfineparticulates,andmaybeoperatedcontinuouslywithoutrequiringfrequentshutdownsformaintenance. Fabricfiltersorbaghousesarethemostcommonlyemployedingeneralindustry.[25]Theyworkbyforcingdust-ladenairthroughabag-shapedfabricfilterleavingtheparticulatetocollectontheoutersurfaceofthebagandallowingthenowcleanairtopassthroughtoeitherbeexhaustedintotheatmosphereorinsomecasesrecirculatedintothefacility.CommonfabricsincludepolyesterandfiberglassandcommonfabriccoatingsincludePTFE(commonlyknownasTeflon).Theexcessdustbuildupisthencleanedfromthebagsandremovedfromthecollector. Wetscrubberspassthedirtyairthroughascrubbingsolution(usuallyamixtureofwaterandothercompounds)allowingtheparticulatetoattachtotheliquidmolecules.Electrostaticprecipitatorselectricallychargethedirtyairasitpassesthrough.Thenowchargedairthenpassesthroughlargeelectrostaticplateswhichattractthechargedparticleintheairstreamcollectingthemandleavingthenowcleanairtobeexhaustedorrecirculated. Besidesremovingparticulatesfromthesourceofpollution,itcanalsobecleanedintheopenair. Climateeffects[edit] 2005radiativeforcingsanduncertaintiesasestimatedbytheIPCC. Atmosphericaerosolsaffecttheclimateoftheearthbychangingtheamountofincomingsolarradiationandoutgoingterrestriallongwaveradiationretainedintheearth'ssystem.Thisoccursthroughseveraldistinctmechanismswhicharesplitintodirect,indirect[26][27]andsemi-directaerosoleffects.Theaerosolclimateeffectsarethebiggestsourceofuncertaintyinfutureclimatepredictions.[28]TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,ThirdAssessmentReport,says:Whiletheradiativeforcingduetogreenhousegasesmaybedeterminedtoareasonablyhighdegreeofaccuracy...theuncertaintiesrelatingtoaerosolradiativeforcingsremainlarge,andrelytoalargeextentontheestimatesfromglobalmodelingstudiesthataredifficulttoverifyatthepresenttime.[29] Aerosolradiative[edit] Globalaerosolopticalthickness.Theaerosolscale(yellowtodarkreddish-brown)indicatestherelativeamountofparticlesthatabsorbsunlight. PlaymediaThesemapsshowaveragemonthlyaerosolamountsaroundtheworldbasedonobservationsfromtheModerateResolutionImagingSpectroradiometer(MODIS)onNASA'sTerrasatellite. Direct[edit] ParticulatesintheaircausingshadesofgreyandpinkinMumbaiduringsunset PlaymediaItaliancitypollutedbyparticulatesandopticairdetector(laser) Thedirectaerosoleffectconsistsofanydirectinteractionofradiationwithatmosphericaerosols,suchasabsorptionorscattering.Itaffectsbothshortandlongwaveradiationtoproduceanetnegativeradiativeforcing.[30]Themagnitudeoftheresultantradiativeforcingduetothedirecteffectofanaerosolisdependentonthealbedooftheunderlyingsurface,asthisaffectsthenetamountofradiationabsorbedorscatteredtospace.e.g.ifahighlyscatteringaerosolisaboveasurfaceoflowalbedoithasagreaterradiativeforcingthanifitwasaboveasurfaceofhighalbedo.Theconverseistrueofabsorbingaerosol,withthegreatestradiativeforcingarisingfromahighlyabsorbingaerosoloverasurfaceofhighalbedo.[26]Thedirectaerosoleffectisafirst-ordereffectandisthereforeclassifiedasaradiativeforcingbytheIPCC.[28]Theinteractionofanaerosolwithradiationisquantifiedbythesingle-scatteringalbedo(SSA),theratioofscatteringalonetoscatteringplusabsorption(extinction)ofradiationbyaparticle.TheSSAtendstounityifscatteringdominates,withrelativelylittleabsorption,anddecreasesasabsorptionincreases,becomingzeroforinfiniteabsorption.Forexample,thesea-saltaerosolhasanSSAof1,asasea-saltparticleonlyscatters,whereassoothasanSSAof0.23,showingthatitisamajoratmosphericaerosolabsorber. Indirect[edit] TheIndirectaerosoleffectconsistsofanychangetotheearth'sradiativebudgetduetothemodificationofcloudsbyatmosphericaerosolsandconsistsofseveraldistincteffects.Clouddropletsformontopre-existingaerosolparticles,knownascloudcondensationnuclei(CCN).Dropletscondensingaroundhuman-producedaerosolssuchasfoundinparticulatepollutiontendtobesmallerandmorenumerousthanthoseformingaroundaerosolparticlesofnaturalorigin(suchaswindblowndust).[12] Foranygivenmeteorologicalconditions,anincreaseinCCNleadstoanincreaseinthenumberofclouddroplets.Thisleadstomorescatteringofshortwaveradiationi.e.anincreaseinthealbedoofthecloud,knownastheCloudalbedoeffect,FirstindirecteffectorTwomeyeffect.[27]Evidencesupportingthecloudalbedoeffecthasbeenobservedfromtheeffectsofshipexhaustplumes[31]andbiomassburning[32]oncloudalbedocomparedtoambientclouds.TheCloudalbedoaerosoleffectisafirstordereffectandthereforeclassifiedasaradiativeforcingbytheIPCC.[28] Anincreaseinclouddropletnumberduetotheintroductionofaerosolactstoreducetheclouddropletsize,asthesameamountofwaterisdividedintomoredroplets.Thishastheeffectofsuppressingprecipitation,increasingthecloudlifetime,knownasthecloudlifetimeaerosoleffect,secondindirecteffectorAlbrechteffect.[28]Thishasbeenobservedasthesuppressionofdrizzleinshipexhaustplumecomparedtoambientclouds,[33]andinhibitedprecipitationinbiomassburningplumes.[34]Thiscloudlifetimeeffectisclassifiedasaclimatefeedback(ratherthanaradiativeforcing)bytheIPCCduetotheinterdependencebetweenitandthehydrologicalcycle.[28]However,ithaspreviouslybeenclassifiedasanegativeradiativeforcing.[35] Semi-direct[edit] TheSemi-directeffectconcernsanyradiativeeffectcausedbyabsorbingatmosphericaerosolsuchassoot,apartfromdirectscatteringandabsorption,whichisclassifiedasthedirecteffect.Itencompassesmanyindividualmechanisms,andingeneralismorepoorlydefinedandunderstoodthanthedirectandindirectaerosoleffects.Forinstance,ifabsorbingaerosolsarepresentinalayeraloftintheatmosphere,theycanheatsurroundingairwhichinhibitsthecondensationofwatervapour,resultinginlesscloudformation.[36]Additionally,heatingalayeroftheatmosphererelativetothesurfaceresultsinamorestableatmosphereduetotheinhibitionofatmosphericconvection.Thisinhibitstheconvectiveupliftofmoisture,[37]whichinturnreducescloudformation.Theheatingoftheatmospherealoftalsoleadstoacoolingofthesurface,resultinginlessevaporationofsurfacewater.Theeffectsdescribedhereallleadtoareductionincloudcoveri.e.anincreaseinplanetaryalbedo.Thesemi-directeffectclassifiedasaclimatefeedback)bytheIPCCduetotheinterdependencebetweenitandthehydrologicalcycle.[28]However,ithaspreviouslybeenclassifiedasanegativeradiativeforcing.[35] Specificaerosolroles[edit] Sulfate[edit] Mainarticle:Stratosphericsulfuraerosols Sulfateaerosolhastwomaineffects,directandindirect.Thedirecteffect,viaalbedo,isacoolingeffectthatslowstheoverallrateofglobalwarming:theIPCC'sbestestimateoftheradiativeforcingis−0.4wattspersquaremeterwitharangeof−0.2to−0.8W/m2.[38]Howevertherearesubstantialuncertainties.Theeffectvariesstronglygeographically,withmostcoolingbelievedtobeatanddownwindofmajorindustrialcenters.Modernclimatemodelsaddressingtheattributionofrecentclimatechangetakeintoaccountsulfateforcing,whichappearstoaccount(atleastpartly)fortheslightdropinglobaltemperatureinthemiddleofthe20thcentury.Theindirecteffectviatheaerosolactingascloudcondensationnuclei(CCN)andtherebymodifyingthecloudproperties(albedoandlifetime)ismoreuncertainbutisbelievedtobecooling. Blackcarbon[edit] Blackcarbon(BC),orcarbonblack,orelementalcarbon(EC),oftencalledsoot,iscomposedofpurecarbonclusters,skeletonballsandfullerenes,andisoneofthemostimportantabsorbingaerosolspeciesintheatmosphere.Itshouldbedistinguishedfromorganiccarbon(OC):clusteredoraggregatedorganicmoleculesontheirownorpermeatinganECbuckyball.BlackcarbonfromfossilfuelsisestimatedbytheIPCCintheFourthAssessmentReportoftheIPCC,4AR,tocontributeaglobalmeanradiativeforcingof+0.2W/m2(was+0.1W/m2intheSecondAssessmentReportoftheIPCC,SAR),witharange+0.1to+0.4W/m2.Astudypublishedin2013however,statesthat"thebestestimatefortheindustrial-era(1750to2005)directradiativeforcingofatmosphericblackcarbonis+0.71W/m2with90%uncertaintyboundsof(+0.08,+1.27)W/m2"with"totaldirectforcingbyall-blackcarbonsources,withoutsubtractingthepreindustrialbackground,isestimatedas+0.88(+0.17,+1.48)W/m2".[39] Instances[edit] Seealso:Haze Solarradiationreductionduetovolcaniceruptions Volcanoesarealargenaturalsourceofaerosolandhavebeenlinkedtochangesintheearth'sclimateoftenwithconsequencesforthehumanpopulation.Eruptionslinkedtochangesinclimateincludethe1600eruptionofHuaynaputinawhichwaslinkedtotheRussianfamineof1601-1603,[40][41][42]leadingtothedeathsoftwomillion,andthe1991eruptionofMountPinatubowhichcausedaglobalcoolingofapproximately0.5 °Clastingseveralyears.[43][44]Researchtrackingtheeffectoflight-scatteringaerosolsinthestratosphereduring2000and2010andcomparingitspatterntovolcanicactivityshowaclosecorrelation.Simulationsoftheeffectofanthropogenicparticlesshowedlittleinfluenceatpresentlevels.[45][46] Aerosolsarealsothoughttoaffectweatherandclimateonaregionalscale.ThefailureoftheIndianmonsoonhasbeenlinkedtothesuppressionofevaporationofwaterfromtheIndianOceanduetothesemi-directeffectofanthropogenicaerosol.[47] RecentstudiesoftheSaheldrought[48]andmajorincreasessince1967inrainfallinAustraliaovertheNorthernTerritory,Kimberley,PilbaraandaroundtheNullarborPlainhaveledsomescientiststoconcludethattheaerosolhazeoverSouthandEastAsiahasbeensteadilyshiftingtropicalrainfallinbothhemispheressouthward.[47][49] Healtheffects[edit] AirpollutionmeasurementstationinEmden,Germany Seealso:Environmentalimpactofthecoalindustry Size,shapeandsolubilitymatter[edit] Thesizeoftheparticleisthemaindeterminantofwhereintherespiratorytracttheparticlewillcometorestwheninhaled.Largerparticlesaregenerallyfilteredinthenoseandthroatviaciliaandmucus,butparticulatemattersmallerthanabout10micrometers,cansettleinthebronchiandlungsandcausehealthproblems.The10-micrometersizedoesnotrepresentastrictboundarybetweenrespirableandnon-respirableparticlesbuthasbeenagreeduponformonitoringofairborneparticulatematterbymostregulatoryagencies.Becauseoftheirsmallsize,particlesontheorderof10micrometersorless(coarseparticulatematter,PM10)canpenetratethedeepestpartofthelungssuchasthebronchiolesoralveoli.[50]Whenasthmaticsareexposedtotheseconditionsitcantriggerbronchoconstriction.[51] Similarly,socalledfineparticulatematter(PM2.5),tendstopenetrateintothegasexchangeregionsofthelung(alveolus),andverysmallparticles(ultrafineparticulatematter,PM0.1)maypassthroughthelungstoaffectotherorgans.Penetrationofparticlesisnotwhollydependentontheirsize;shapeandchemicalcompositionalsoplayapart.Toavoidthiscomplication,simplenomenclatureisusedtoindicatethedifferentdegreesofrelativepenetrationofaPMparticleintothecardiovascularsystem.Inhalableparticlespenetratenofurtherthanthebronchiastheyarefilteredoutbythecilia.ThoracicparticlescanpenetraterightintoterminalbronchioleswhereasPM0.1,whichcanpenetratetoalveoli,thegasexchangearea,andhencethecirculatorysystemaretermedrespirableparticles. Inanalogy,theinhalabledustfractionisthefractionofdustenteringthenoseandmouthwhichmaybedepositedanywhereintherespiratorytract.Thethoracicfractionisthefractionthatentersthethoraxandisdepositedwithinthelung'sairways.Therespirablefractioniswhatisdepositedinthegasexchangeregions(alveoli).[52] Thesmallestparticles,lessthan100nanometers(nanoparticles),maybeevenmoredamagingtothecardiovascularsystem.[53]Nanoparticlescanpassthroughcellmembranesandmigrateintootherorgans,includingthebrain.Particlesemittedfrommoderndieselengines(commonlyreferredtoasDieselParticulateMatter,orDPM)aretypicallyinthesizerangeof100nanometers(0.1micrometers).Thesesootparticlesalsocarrycarcinogenslikebenzopyrenesadsorbedontheirsurface.Particulatemassisnotapropermeasureofthehealthhazard,becauseoneparticleof10 μmdiameterhasapproximatelythesamemassas1millionparticlesof100 nmdiameter,butismuchlesshazardous,asitisunlikelytoenterthealveoli.Legislativelimitsforengineemissionsbasedonmassarethereforenotprotective.Proposalsfornewregulationsexistinsomecountries,[which?]withsuggestionstolimittheparticlesurfaceareaortheparticlecount(numericalquantity)instead.[citationneeded] Thesiteandextentofabsorptionofinhaledgasesandvaporsaredeterminedbytheirsolubilityinwater.Absorptionisalsodependentuponairflowratesandthepartialpressureofthegasesintheinspiredair.Thefateofaspecificcontaminantisdependentupontheforminwhichitexists(aerosolorparticulate).Inhalationalsodependsuponthebreathingrateofthesubject.[54] AnothercomplexitynotentirelydocumentedishowtheshapeofPMcanaffecthealth,exceptfortheneedle-likeshapeofasbestosfibreswhichcanlodgeinthelungs.Geometricallyangularshapeshavemoresurfaceareathanroundershapes,whichinturnaffectsthebindingcapacityoftheparticletoother,possiblymoredangeroussubstances. Healthproblems[edit] Deathsfromairpollutioncomparedtoothercommoncauses AirqualityinformationonPM10displayedinKatowice,Poland Theeffectsofinhalingparticulatematterthathavebeenwidelystudiedinhumansandanimalsincludeasthma,lungcancer,respiratorydiseases,cardiovasculardisease,prematuredelivery,birthdefects,lowbirthweight,andprematuredeath.Outdoorfineparticulateswithdiameterlessthan2.5micronsaccountsfor4.2millionannualdeathsworldwide,andmorethan103milliondisability-adjustedlife-yearslost,makingitthefifthleadingriskfactorfordeath.Particulatesmaycausetissuedamagebyenteringorgansdirectly,orindirectlybysystemicinflammation.Adverseimpactsmayobtainevenatexposurelevelslowerthanpublishedairqualitystandardsdeemedsafe.[55][56] Anthropogenicfineparticulatesasmainhazard[edit] Increasedlevelsoffineparticlesintheairasaresultofanthropogenicparticulateairpollution"isconsistentlyandindependentlyrelatedtothemostseriouseffects,includinglungcancer[8]andothercardiopulmonarymortality."[57]Theassociationbetweenalargenumberofdeaths[58]andotherhealthproblemsandparticulatepollutionwasfirstdemonstratedintheearly1970s[59]andhasbeenreproducedmanytimessince.PMpollutionisestimatedtocause22,000–52,000deathsperyearintheUnitedStates(from2000)[60]contributedto~370,000prematuredeathsinEuropeduring2005.[61]and3.22milliondeathsgloballyin2010pertheglobalburdenofdiseasecollaboration.[62] Astudyin2000conductedintheU.S.exploredhowfineparticulatemattermaybemoreharmfulthancoarseparticulatematter.Thestudywasbasedonsixdifferentcities.Theyfoundthatdeathsandhospitalvisitsthatwerecausedbyparticulatematterintheairwereprimarilyduetofineparticulatematter.[63]Similarly,a1987studyofAmericanairpollutiondatafoundthatfineparticlesandsulfates,asopposedtocoarserparticles,mostconsistentlyandsignificantlycorrelatedtototalannualmortalityratesinstandardmetropolitanstatisticalareas.[64] Pregnancy,fetusesandbirtheffects[edit] Higherratesofinfertilityhavebeencorrelatedwithexposuretoparticulates.[65] Inaddition,inhalationofPM2.5–PM10isassociatedwithelevatedriskofadversepregnancyoutcomes,suchaslowbirthweight.[66]MaternalPM2.5exposureduringpregnancyisalsoassociatedwithhighbloodpressureinchildren.[67]ExposuretoPM2.5hasbeenassociatedwithgreaterreductionsinbirthweightthanexposuretoPM10.[68]PMexposurecancauseinflammation,oxidativestress,endocrinedisruption,andimpairedoxygentransportaccesstotheplacenta,[69]allofwhicharemechanismsforheighteningtheriskoflowbirthweight.[70]Overallepidemiologicandtoxicologicalevidencesuggeststhatacausalrelationshipexistsbetweenlong-termexposurestoPM2.5anddevelopmentaloutcomes(i.e.lowbirthweight).[68]However,studiesinvestigatingthesignificanceoftrimester-specificexposurehaveproventobeinconclusive,[71]andresultsofinternationalstudieshavebeeninconsistentindrawingassociationsofprenatalparticulatematterexposureandlowbirthweight.[68] Asperinataloutcomeshavebeenassociatedwithlifelonghealth[72][73]andexposuretoparticulatematteriswidespread,thisissueisofcriticalpublichealthimportanceandadditionalresearchwillbeessentialtoinformpublicpolicyonthematter. Cardiovascularandrespiratorydisease[edit] A2002studyindicatedthatPM2.5leadstohighplaquedepositsinarteries,causingvascularinflammationandatherosclerosis–ahardeningofthearteriesthatreduceselasticity,whichcanleadtoheartattacksandothercardiovascularproblems.[74]A2014metaanalysisreportedthatlongtermexposuretoparticulatematterislinkedtocoronaryevents.Thestudyincluded11cohortsparticipatingintheEuropeanStudyofCohortsforAirPollutionEffects(ESCAPE)with100,166participants,followedforanaverageof11.5years.AnincreaseinestimatedannualexposuretoPM2.5ofjust5 μg/m3waslinkedwitha13%increasedriskofheartattacks.[75]In2017astudyrevealedthatPMnotonlyaffectshumancellsandtissues,butalsoimpactsbacteriawhichcausediseaseinhumans.[76]Thisstudyconcludedthatbiofilmformation,antibiotictolerance,andcolonisationofbothStaphylococcusaureusandStreptococcuspneumoniaewasalteredbyblackcarbonexposure. ThelargestUSstudyonacutehealtheffectsofcoarseparticlepollutionbetween2.5and10micrometersindiameterwaspublished2008andfoundanassociationwithhospitaladmissionsforcardiovasculardiseasesbutnoevidenceofanassociationwiththenumberofhospitaladmissionsforrespiratorydiseases.[77]Aftertakingintoaccountfineparticlelevels(PM2.5andless),theassociationwithcoarseparticlesremainedbutwasnolongerstatisticallysignificant,whichmeanstheeffectisduetothesubsectionoffineparticles. TheMongoliangovernmentagencyrecordeda45%increaseintherateofrespiratoryillnessinthepastfiveyears(reportedinSeptember2014).Bronchialasthma,chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease,andinterstitialpneumoniawerethemostcommonailmentstreatedbyareahospitals.Levelsofprematuredeath,chronicbronchitis,andcardiovasculardiseaseareincreasingatarapidrate.[19] Cognitivehazards[edit] Furtherinformation:Neuroplasticeffectsofpollution Theeffectsofairpollutionandparticulatematteroncognitiveperformancehasbecomeanactiveareaofresearch.ArecentlongitudinalstudyinChinacomparingairpollutionandparticulateexposurewithverbalandmathematicstestscoresfoundthataccumulativeexposureimpededverbaltestscoresofmenandwomensignificantlymorethanthemathscores.Thenegativeimpactinverbalreasoningasaresultofparticulateexposurewasmorepronouncedaspeopleagedandaffectedmenmorethanwomen.Thelevelofcognitivedeclineinverbalreasoningscoreswasmorepronouncedinlesseducated(middleschooldiplomaorlower)subjects.[78]Shorttermexposuretoparticulatematterhasbeenlinkedtoshorttermcognitivedeclineinotherwisehealthyadults.[79] ParticulatesalsoappeartohavearoleinthepathogenesisofAlzheimer'sdiseaseandprematurebrainaging[80] Increaseddeath[edit] TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)estimatedin2005that"...fineparticulateairpollution(PM(2.5)),causesabout3%ofmortalityfromcardiopulmonarydisease,about5%ofmortalityfromcancerofthetrachea,bronchus,andlung,andabout1%ofmortalityfromacuterespiratoryinfectionsinchildrenunder5years,worldwide.".[81]A2011studyconcludedthattrafficexhaustisthesinglemostseriouspreventablecauseofheartattackinthegeneralpublic,thecauseof7.4%ofallattacks.[82] ParticulatematterstudiesinBangkok,Thailandfrom2008indicateda1.9%increasedriskofdyingfromcardiovasculardisease,and1.0%riskofalldiseaseforevery10microgramspercubicmeter.Levelsaveraged65in1996,68in2002,and52in2004.Decreasinglevelsmaybeattributedtoconversionsofdieseltonaturalgascombustionaswellasimprovedregulations.[83] Racialdisparities[edit] Therehavebeenmanystudieslinkingracetoincreasedproximitytoparticulatematter,andthussusceptibilitytoadversehealtheffectsthatgointandemwithlongtermexposure. InastudyanalyzingtheeffectsofairpollutiononraciallysegregatedneighborhoodsintheUnitedStates,resultsshowthat“theproportionsofBlackresidentsinatractwaslinkedtohigherasthmarates”.[84] Manyscholarslinkthisdisproportionalitytoracialhousingsegregationandtheirrespectiveinequalitiesin“toxicexposures”.[84] Thisrealityismadeworsebythefindingthat“healthcareoccursinthecontextofbroaderhistoricandcontemporarysocialandeconomicinequalityandpersistentracialandethnicdiscriminationinmanysectorsofAmericanlife”.[85] ResidentialproximitytoparticulateemittingfacilitiesincreasesexposuretoPM2.5whichislinkedtoincreasedmorbidityandmortalityrates.[86] MultiplestudiesconfirmtheburdenofPMemissionsishigheramongnon-Whiteandpovertyriddenpopulations,[86]thoughsomesaythatincomedoesnotdrivethesedifferences.[87] Thiscorrelationbetweenraceandhousingrelatedhealthrepercussionsstemsfromalongstandingenvironmentaljusticeproblemlinkedtothepracticeofhistoricredlining. AnexampleofthesefactorscontextualizedisanareaofSoutheasternLouisiana,colloquiallydubbed‘CancerAlley’foritshighconcentrationofcancerrelateddeathsduetoneighboringchemicalplants.[88] CancerAlleybeingamajorityAfricanAmericancommunity,withtheneighborhoodnearesttotheplantbeing90%Black,[88]perpetuatesthescientificnarrativethatBlackpopulationsarelocateddisproportionatelyclosertoareasofhighPMoutputthanWhitepopulations. A2020articlerelatesthelongtermhealtheffectsoflivinginhighPMconcentrationstoincreasedrisk,spread,andmortalityratesfromtheSARS-CoV-2orCOVID-19,andfaultsahistoryofracismforthisoutcome.[88]  Wildfiresmokerisk[edit] Thereisanincreasedriskofparticulateexposureinregionswherewildfiresarepersistent.Smokefromwildfiresmayimpactsensitivegroupssuchastheelderly,children,pregnantwomen,andpeoplewithlung,andcardiovasculardisease.[89]Astudyfoundthatinthe2008wildfireseasoninCalifornia,theparticulatematterwasmuchmoretoxictohumanlungs,asincreasedneutrophilinfiltrate,cellinfluxandedemawasobservedversusparticulatematterfromambientair.[90]Furthermore,particulatematterfromwildfireshavebeenlinkedtobeatriggeringfactorofacutecoronaryeventssuchasischemicheartdisease.[91]Wildfiresalsohavebeenassociatedwithincreasedemergencydepartmentvisitsduetoparticulatematterexposure,aswellasanincreasedriskofasthmarelatedevents.[92][93]Furthermore,alinkbetweenPM2.5fromwildfiresandincreasedriskofhospitalizationsforcardiopulmonarydiseaseshasbeendiscovered.[94] Energyindustryknowledgeandresponsetoadversehealtheffects[edit] Majorenergycompaniesunderstoodatleastsincethe1960sthatuseoftheirproductscauseswidespreadadversehealtheffectsanddeathbutcontinuedaggressivepoliticallobbyingintheUnitedStatesandelsewhereagainstcleanairregulationandlaunchedmajorcorporatepropagandacampaignstosowdoubtregardingthecausativelinkbetweentheburningoffossilfuelsandmajorriskstohumanlife.Internalcompanymemorandarevealthatenergyindustryscientistsandexecutivesknewthatairpollutantscreatedbyfossilfuelslodgedeepinhumanlungtissue,andcausebirthdefectsinchildrenofoilindustryworkers.Theindustrymemosacknowledgethatautomobiles“arebyfarthegreatestsourcesofairpollution”andalsothatairpollutioncausesadversehealtheffectsandlodgestoxins,includingcarcinogens,“deepintothelungswhichwouldotherwiseberemovedinthethroat.”[95] Inresponsetomountingpublicconcern,theindustryeventuallycreatedtheGlobalClimateCoalition,anindustrylobbygroup,toderailgovernments'attemptstoregulateairpollutionandtocreateconfusioninthepublicmindaboutthenecessityofsuchregulation.SimilarlobbyingandcorporatepublicrelationseffortswereundertakenbytheAmericanPetroleumInstitute,atradeassociationoftheoilandgasindustry,andtheclimatechangedenierprivatethinktank,TheHeartlandInstitute.“Theresponsefromfossil-fuelinterestshasbeenfromthesameplaybook–firsttheyknow,thentheyscheme,thentheydenyandthentheydelay.They’vefallenbackondelay,subtleformsofpropagandaandtheunderminingofregulation,”saidGeoffreySupran,aHarvardUniversityresearcherofthehistoryoffossil-fuelcompaniesandclimatechange.Theseeffortshavebeencompared,bypolicyanalystssuchasCarrollMuffettoftheCenterforInternationalEnvironmentalLaw,tothetobaccoindustrystrategyoflobbyingandcorporatepropagandacampaignstocreatedoubtregardingthecausalconnectionbetweencigarettesmokingandcancerandtoforestallitsregulation.Inaddition,industry-fundedadvocates,whenappointedtoseniorgovernmentpositionsintheUnitedStates,haverevisedscientificfindingsshowingthedeadlyeffectsofairpollutionandhaverolledbackitsregulation.[96][97][98] Effectsonvegetation[edit] Particulatemattercanclogstomatalopeningsofplantsandinterferewithphotosynthesisfunctions.[99]Inthismanner,highparticulatematterconcentrationsintheatmospherecanleadtogrowthstuntingormortalityinsomeplantspecies. Regulation[edit] Duetothehighlytoxichealtheffectsofparticulatematter,mostgovernmentshavecreatedregulationsbothfortheemissionsallowedfromcertaintypesofpollutionsources(motorvehicles,industrialemissionsetc.)andfortheambientconcentrationofparticulates.TheIARCandWHOdesignateparticulatesaGroup1carcinogen.Particulatesarethedeadliestformofairpollutionduetotheirabilitytopenetratedeepintothelungsandbloodstreamsunfiltered,causingrespiratorydiseases,heartattacks,andprematuredeath.[7]In2013,theESCAPEstudyinvolving312,944peopleinnineEuropeancountriesrevealedthattherewasnosafelevelofparticulatesandthatforeveryincreaseof10μg/m3inPM10,thelungcancerraterose22%.ForPM2.5therewasa36%increaseinlungcancerper10μg/m3.[8]Ina2014meta-analysisof18studiesgloballyincludingtheESCAPEdata,foreveryincreaseof10μg/m3inPM2.5,thelungcancerraterose9%.[100] Australia[edit] PM10 PM2.5 Yearlyaverage 25 μg/m3 8 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 50 μg/m3 None 25 μg/m3 None Australiahassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[101] Canada[edit] InCanadathestandardforparticulatematterissetnationallybythefederal-provincialCanadianCouncilofMinistersoftheEnvironment(CCME).Jurisdictions(provincesandterritories)maysetmorestringentstandards.TheCCMEstandardforparticulatematter2.5(PM2.5)asof2015is28 μg/m3(calculatedusingthe3-yearaverageoftheannual98thpercentileofthedaily24-hraverageconcentrations)and10μg/m3(3-yearaverageofannualmean).PM2.5standardswillincreaseinstringencyin2020.[102] China[edit] PM10 PM2.5 Yearlyaverage 70 μg/m3 35 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 150 μg/m3 None 75 μg/m3 None Chinahassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[103] EuropeanUnion[edit] PM10[a] PM2.5[b] Yearlyaverage 40 μg/m3 25 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 50 μg/m3 35 None None TheEuropeanUnionhasestablishedtheEuropeanemissionstandards,whichincludelimitsforparticulatesintheair:[104] EuropeanAirQualityIndex Good Fair Moderate Poor Verypoor Extremelypoor Particleslessthan2.5μm(PM2,5) 0-10 μg/m3 10-20 μg/m3 20-25 μg/m3 25-50 μg/m3 50-75 μg/m3 75-800 μg/m3 Particleslessthan10μm(PM10) 0-20 μg/m3 20-40 μg/m3 40-50 μg/m3 50-100 μg/m3 100-150 μg/m3 150-1200 μg/m3 HongKong[edit] PM10[c] PM2.5[d] Yearlyaverage 50 μg/m3 35 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 100 μg/m3 9 75 μg/m3 9 HongKonghassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[105] Japan[edit] PM10[106] PM2.5[e] Yearlyaverage None 15 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 100 μg/m3 None 35 μg/m3 None Japanhassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[107][108] SouthKorea[edit] PM10[f] PM2.5[g] Yearlyaverage 50 μg/m3 15 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 100 μg/m3 None 35 μg/m3 None SouthKoreahassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[109][110] Taiwan[edit] PM10 PM2.5 Yearlyaverage 50 μg/m3 15 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 100 μg/m3 None 35 μg/m3 None Taiwanhassetlimitsforparticulatesintheair:[111][112] UnitedStates[edit] PM10[h][i] PM2.5[j][k] Yearlyaverage None 12 μg/m3 Dailyaverage(24-hour) Allowednumberofexceedencesperyear 150 μg/m3 1 35 μg/m3 Notapplicable[l] TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hassetstandardsforPM10andPM2.5concentrations.[114](SeeNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards) AirqualitytrendsintheUnitedStates California[edit] Thissectionneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.Lastupdate:22January2009(September2016) AirqualitytrendsinthewesternUnitedStates InOctober2008,theDepartmentofToxicSubstancesControl(DTSC),withintheCaliforniaEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,announceditsintenttorequestinformationregardinganalyticaltestmethods,fateandtransportintheenvironment,andotherrelevantinformationfrommanufacturersofcarbonnanotubes.[115]DTSCisexercisingitsauthorityundertheCaliforniaHealthandSafetyCode,Chapter699,sections57018-57020.[116]ThesesectionswereaddedasaresultoftheadoptionofAssemblyBillAB289(2006).[116]Theyareintendedtomakeinformationonthefateandtransport,detectionandanalysis,andotherinformationonchemicalsmoreavailable.ThelawplacestheresponsibilitytoprovidethisinformationtotheDepartmentonthosewhomanufactureorimportthechemicals. On22January2009,aformalinformationrequestletter[117]wassenttomanufacturerswhoproduceorimportcarbonnanotubesinCalifornia,orwhomayexportcarbonnanotubesintotheState.[118]ThisletterconstitutesthefirstformalimplementationoftheauthoritiesplacedintostatutebyAB289andisdirectedtomanufacturersofcarbonnanotubes,bothindustry,andacademiawithintheState,andtomanufacturersoutsideCaliforniawhoexportcarbonnanotubestoCalifornia.Thisrequestforinformationmustbemetbythemanufacturerswithinoneyear.DTSCiswaitingfortheupcoming22January2010deadlineforresponsestothedatacall-in. TheCaliforniaNanoIndustryNetworkandDTSChostedafull-daysymposiumon16November2009inSacramento,CA.ThissymposiumprovidedanopportunitytohearfromnanotechnologyindustryexpertsanddiscussfutureregulatoryconsiderationsinCalifornia.[119] DTSCisexpandingtheSpecificChemicalInformationCall-intomembersofthenanometaloxides,thelatestinformationcanbefoundontheirwebsite.[120] Colorado[edit] AirqualitytrendsinthesouthwesternUnitedStates Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(August2012)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) KeypointsintheColoradoPlanincludereducingemissionlevelsandsolutionsbysector.Agriculture,transportation,greenelectricity,andrenewableenergyresearcharethemainconceptsandgoalsinthisplan.Politicalprogramssuchasmandatoryvehicleemissionstestingandtheprohibitionofsmokingindoorsareactionstakenbylocalgovernmenttocreatepublicawarenessandparticipationincleanerair.ThelocationofDenvernexttotheRockyMountainsandwideexpanseofplainsmakesthemetroareaofColorado'scapitalcityalikelyplaceforsmogandvisibleairpollution. Affectedareas[edit] U.S.countiesviolatingnationalPM2.5standardsU.S.countiesviolatingnationalPM10standards ConcentrationofPM10[61]inEurope ConcentrationofPM2,5(EuropeanAirQualityIndex)duringtimeslotinacityinItaly2019-2020 Themostconcentratedparticulatematterpollutionresultingfromtheburningoffossilfuelsbytransportationandindustrialsourcestendstobeindenselypopulatedmetropolitanareasindevelopingcountries,suchasDelhiandBeijing. Australia[edit] PM10pollutionincoalminingareasinAustraliasuchastheLatrobeValleyinVictoriaandtheHunterRegioninNewSouthWalessignificantlyincreasedduring2004to2014.Althoughtheincreasedidnotsignificantlyaddtonon-attainmentstatisticstherateofincreasehasriseneachyearduring2010to2014.[121] China[edit] SomecitiesinNorthernChinaandSouthAsiahavehadconcentrationsabove200 μg/m3uptoafewyearsago[when?].[citationneeded]ThePMlevelsinChinesecitieshavebeenextremeinrecentyears[when?],reachinganall-timehighinBeijingon12January2013,of993 μg/m3.[19] TomonitortheairqualityofsouthChina,theU.S.ConsulateGuangzhousetaPM2.5monitoronShamianIslandinGuangzhouanddisplaysreadingsonitsofficialwebsiteandsocialplatforms.[122] Ulaanbaatar[edit] Mongolia'scapitalcityUlaanbaatarhasanannualaveragemeantemperatureofabout0 °C,makingittheworld'scoldestcapitalcity.About40%ofthepopulationlivesinapartments,80%ofwhicharesuppliedwithcentralheatingsystemsfrom3combinedheatandpowerplants.In2007,thepowerplantsconsumedalmost3.4milliontonsofcoal.Thepollutioncontroltechnologyisinpoorcondition.[citationneeded] Theother60%ofthepopulationresideinshantytowns(Gerdistricts),whichhavedevelopedduetothecountry'snewmarketeconomyandtheverycoldwinterseasons.Thepoorinthesedistrictscookandheattheirwoodhouseswithindoorstovesfueledbywoodorcoal.Theresultingairpollutionischaracterizedbyraisedsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidelevelsandveryhighconcentrationsofairborneparticlesandparticulatematter(PM).[19] Annualseasonalaverageparticulatematterconcentrationshavebeenrecordedashighas279 μg/m3(microgramspercubicmeter).[citationneeded]TheWorldHealthOrganization'srecommendedannualmeanPM10levelis20 μg/m3,[123]whichmeansthatUlaanbaatar'sPM10annualmeanlevelsare14timeshigherthanrecommended.[citationneeded] Duringthewintermonths,inparticular,theairpollutionobscurestheair,affectingthevisibilityinthecitytosuchanextentthatairplanesonsomeoccasionsarepreventedfromlandingattheairport.[124] Inadditiontostackemissions,anothersourceunaccountedforintheemissioninventoryisflyashfromashponds,thefinaldisposalplaceforflyashthathasbeencollectedinsettlingtanks.Ashpondsarecontinuallyerodedbywindduringthedryseason.[125] Seealso[edit] Airqualityindex Airqualitylaw Bioaerosol Criteriaaircontaminants Environmentalimpactofthecoalindustry Exercise-inducedbronchoconstriction Fog Globaldimming Listofmostpollutedcitiesbyparticulatematterconcentration Microplastics NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards Non-exhaustemissions 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^USEPA,OAR(19April2016)."ParticulateMatter(PM)Basics".USEPA.Retrieved5October2019. ^"EHP–OutdoorParticulateMatterExposureandLungCancer:ASystematicReviewandMeta-Analysis".ehp.niehs.nih.gov.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29May2016.Retrieved29December2016. ^WasleyA,HealA,HarveyF,LainioM(13June2019)."Revealed:UKgovernmentfailingtotackleriseofseriousairpollutant".TheGuardian.ISSN 0261-3077.Retrieved14June2019.PM2.5isprobablyresponsibleforsomewherebetweenhalfandthree-quartersofthetotalharmwederiveashumansfromairpollution ^abUSEPA,OAR(26April2016)."HealthandEnvironmentalEffectsofParticulateMatter(PM)".USEPA.Retrieved5October2019. ^abcRaaschou-NielsenO,AndersenZJ,BeelenR,SamoliE,StafoggiaM,WeinmayrG,et al.(August2013)."Airpollutionandlungcancerincidencein17Europeancohorts:prospectiveanalysesfromtheEuropeanStudyofCohortsforAirPollutionEffects(ESCAPE)".TheLancet.Oncology.14(9):813–22.doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279-1.PMID 23849838.Retrieved10July2013.ParticulatematterairpollutioncontributestolungcancerincidenceinEurope. ^"STATEOFGLOBALAIR/2018ASPECIALREPORTONGLOBALEXPOSURETOAIRPOLLUTIONANDITSDISEASEBURDEN"(PDF).HealthEffectsInstitute.2018. ^"TheWeightofNumbers:AirPollutionandPM2.5".Undark.Retrieved6September2018. ^Omidvarborna;et al.(2015)."Recentstudiesonsootmodelingfordieselcombustion".RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews.48:635–647.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.019. ^abHardinM,KahnR(2November2010)."AerosolsandClimateChange". ^"PrimaryandSecondarySourcesofAerosols:Soildust".ClimateChange2001:WorkingGroup1.UNEP.2001.Archivedfromtheoriginalon28February2008.Retrieved6February2008. 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Furtherreading[edit] Voiland,Adam."Aerosols:TinyParticles,BigImpact."NASA,2Nov.2010,https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Aerosols TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(theprincipalinternationalscientificbodyonclimatechange)chapteronatmosphericaerosolsandtheirradiativeeffects InsideEPA.com,StudyLinksAirToxicsToHeartDiseaseInMiceAmidEPAControversy[deadlink] Preining,OthmarandE.JamesDavis(eds.),"HistoryofAerosolScience,"ÖsterreichischeAkademiederWissenschaften,ISBN 3-7001-2915-7(Pbk.) GInvernizzietal.,Particulatematterfromtobaccoversusdieselcarexhaust:aneducationalperspective.TobaccoControl13,S.219–221(2004) "TheWeightofNumbers:AirPollutionandPM2.5".UndarkMagazine.Retrieved27September2019. JEFFCHARLTONPandemicplanning:areviewofrespiratorandmaskprotectionlevels. Hinds,WilliamC.,AerosolTechnology:Properties,Behavior,andMeasurementofAirborneParticles,Wiley-Interscience,ISBN 0-471-19410-7 Zangari,Shelbyetal.,AirqualitychangesinNewYorkCityduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.ScienceofTheTotalEnvironment742(2020) NARSTO(2004)ParticulateMatterScienceforPolicyMakers:ANARSTOAssessment.P.McMurry,M.Shepherd,andJ.Vickery,eds.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,England.ISBN 0521842875. Externallinks[edit] LookupparticulatesinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. CurrentglobalmapofPM1distribution CurrentglobalmapofPM1andPM2.5distribution CurrentglobalmapofPM1,PM2.5andPM10distribution AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Other MicrosoftAcademic vteSevereweatherterminologyintheUnitedStatesSeverestormsThunderstorm Advisory Watch PDSwatch Warning Tornado Watch PDSwatch Warning PDSwarning Emergency Marinethunderstorm Specialmarinewarning WinterweatherAdvisories Winterweatheradvisory Winterstorm Watch Warning Blizzard/blowingsnow Blowingsnowadvisory Blizzardwatch Blizzardwarning Heavysnow Warning Watch Lake-effectsnow Advisory Watch Warning Snowsquall Warning Ice Freezingrainadvisory Icestormwarning Icestormwatch Avalanche Warning Watch Advisory TropicalcyclonesTropicalstorms Watch Warning Hurricanes Watch Warning Stormsurge Watch Warning HurricaneLocalStatementFloodFlood Watch Warning Flashflood Watch PDSwatch Warning Emergency Coastalflood Advisory Watch Warning Statement Lakeshoreflood Warning Advisory Watch Statement Riverflood Advisory Watch Warning Urbanandsmallstreamflood Advisory ApparenttemperatureHeatindex Heatadvisory Excessiveheatwatch Excessiveheatwarning Windchill Advisory Watch Warning PDSwarning Extremecold Warning Freeze Watch Warning Hardfreezewarning Frostadvisory Hardfreezewatch MaritimeandcoastalweatherMarinewinds Smallcraftadvisory Briskwindadvisory Lakewindadvisory Gale Watch Warning Storm Watch Warning Hurricane-forcewind Warning Watch Hazardousseas Watch Warning Freezingspray Freezingsprayadvisory Heavyfreezingspraywatch Heavyfreezingspraywarning Marineweatherstatement RipcurrentstatementHighsurf Highsurfadvisory Highsurfwarning Highsurfwatch WindAdvisory-forcewinds Windadvisory Gale-forcewinds Highwindwatch Highwindwarning Majorhurricane-forcewinds Extremewindwarning AirborneparticulatesDust/sand Blowingdustadvisory Blowingdustwarning Dustadvisory Duststormwarning Fog/Smoke Densefogadvisory Densesmokeadvisory Ash Ashfalladvisory Airpollution Airstagnationadvisory Fire Redflagwarning Firewarning Evacuationimmediate Fireweatherwatch Aviation SIGMET Volcanicashadvisory WeatherscalesusedbyNWS Beaufort(wind) EnhancedFujita(tornadoes) Saffir–Simpsonscale(tropicalcyclones) Other Specialweatherstatement Severeweatherstatement Hazardousweatheroutlook vtePollutionAir Acidrain Airqualityindex Atmosphericdispersionmodeling Chlorofluorocarbon Exhaustgas Haze Indoorair Internalcombustionengine Globaldimming Globaldistillation Ozonedepletion Particulates Persistentorganicpollutant Smog Aerosol Soot Volatileorganiccompound Biological Biologicalhazard Geneticpollution Introducedspecies(Invasivespecies) Electromagnetic Light Ecologicallightpollution Overillumination Radiospectrumpollution Natural Ozone Radiumandradonintheenvironment Volcanicash Wildfire Noise Transportation Land Water Air Rail Sustainabletransport Urban Sonar Marinemammalsandsonar Industrial Military Abstract Noisecontrol Radiation Actinides Bioremediation Fissionproduct Nuclearfallout Plutonium Poisoning Radioactivity Uranium Electromagneticradiationandhealth Radioactivewaste Soil Agriculturalpollution Herbicides Manurewaste Pesticides Landdegradation Bioremediation Opendefecation Electricalresistanceheating Guidelinevalues Phytoremediation Soildwaste Biodegradablewaste Brownwaste Electronicwaste Batteryrecycling Foodwaste Greenwaste Hazardouswaste Biomedicalwaste Chemicalwaste Constructionwaste Leadpoisoning Mercurypoisoning Toxicwaste Industrialwaste Leadsmelting Litter Mining Coalmining Goldmining Surfacemining Deepseamining Miningwaste Uraniummining Municipalsolidwaste Garbage Nanomaterials Plasticpollution Microplastics Packagingwaste Post-consumerwaste Wastemanagement Landfill Thermaltreatment Space Satellite Thermal Urbanheatisland Visual Airtravel Clutter(advertising) Trafficsigns Overheadpowerlines Vandalism War Chemicalwarfare Herbicidalwarfare(AgentOrange) Nuclearholocaust(Nuclearfallout-nuclearfamine-nuclearwinter) Scorchedearth Unexplodedordnance 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Centralheating Centralsolarheating Chilledbeam Chilledwater Constantairvolume(CAV) Coolant Dedicatedoutdoorairsystem(DOAS) Deepwatersourcecooling Demandcontrolledventilation(DCV) Displacementventilation Districtcooling Districtheating Electricheating Energyrecoveryventilation(ERV) Firestop Forced-air Forced-airgas Freecooling Heatrecoveryventilation(HRV) Hybridheat Hydronics Icestorageairconditioning Kitchenventilation Mixed-modeventilation Microgeneration Passivecooling Passivehouse Passiveventilation Radiantheatingandcooling Radiantcooling Radiantheating Radonmitigation Refrigeration Renewableheat Roomairdistribution Solarairheat Solarcombisystem Solarcooling Solarheating Thermalinsulation Underfloorairdistribution Underfloorheating Vaporbarrier Vapor-compressionrefrigeration(VCRS) Variableairvolume(VAV) Variablerefrigerantflow(VRF) Ventilation Components Airconditionerinverter Airdoor Airfilter Airhandler Airionizer Air-mixingplenum Airpurifier Airsourceheatpump Automaticbalancingvalve Backboiler Barrierpipe Blastdamper Boiler Centrifugalfan Ceramicheater Chiller Condensatepump Condenser Condensingboiler Convectionheater Compressor Coolingtower Damper Dehumidifier Duct Economizer Electrostaticprecipitator Evaporativecooler Evaporator Exhausthood Expansiontank Fan Fancoilunit Fanfilterunit Fanheater Firedamper Fireplace Fireplaceinsert Freezestat Flue Freon Fumehood Furnace Furnaceroom Gascompressor Gasheater Gasolineheater Greaseduct Grille Ground-coupledheatexchanger Groundsourceheatpump Heatexchanger Heatpipe Heatpump Heatingfilm Heatingsystem HEPA Highefficiencyglandlesscirculatingpump High-pressurecut-offswitch Humidifier Infraredheater Invertercompressor Keroseneheater Louver Mechanicalroom Oilheater Packagedterminalairconditioner Plenumspace Pressurisationductwork Processductwork Radiator Radiatorreflector Recuperator Refrigerant Register Reversingvalve Run-aroundcoil Scrollcompressor Solarchimney Solar-assistedheatpump Spaceheater Smokeexhaustductwork Thermalexpansionvalve Thermalwheel Thermosiphon Thermostaticradiatorvalve Tricklevent Trombewall Turningvanes Ultra-lowparticulateair(ULPA) Whole-housefan Windcatcher Wood-burningstove Measurementandcontrol Airflowmeter Aquastat BACnet Blowerdoor Buildingautomation Carbondioxidesensor Cleanairdeliveryrate(CADR) Gasdetector Homeenergymonitor Humidistat HVACcontrolsystem Intelligentbuildings LonWorks Minimumefficiencyreportingvalue(MERV) OpenTherm Programmablecommunicatingthermostat Programmablethermostat Psychrometrics Roomtemperature Smartthermostat Thermostat Thermostaticradiatorvalve Professions,trades,andservices Architecturalacoustics Architecturalengineering Architecturaltechnologist Buildingservicesengineering Buildinginformationmodeling(BIM) Deepenergyretrofit Ductleakagetesting Environmentalengineering Hydronicbalancing Kitchenexhaustcleaning Mechanicalengineering Mechanical,electrical,andplumbing Moldgrowth,assessment,andremediation Refrigerantreclamation Testing,adjusting,balancing Industryorganizations AHRI AMCA ASHRAE ASTMInternational BRE BSRIA CIBSE InstituteofRefrigeration IIR LEED SMACNA Healthandsafety Indoorairquality(IAQ) Passivesmoking Sickbuildingsyndrome(SBS) Volatileorganiccompound(VOC) Seealso ASHRAEHandbook Buildingscience Fireproofing GlossaryofHVACterms WorldRefrigerationDay Template:Homeautomation Template:Solarenergy Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Particulates&oldid=1058389010" 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