Ragnarök - Wikipedia

The Norwegian film Gåten Ragnarok was released in 2013 and centres on the discovery of the mythical serpent in contemporary Finnmark. The concept of Ragnarök is ... Ragnarök FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch EndtimesinNorsemythology Forotheruses,seeRagnarok(disambiguation). Thisarticle'sbodysectionsshouldspecifythelanguageofitsnon-Englishcontent,using{{lang}},{{transl}}fortransliteratedlanguages,and{{IPA}}forphonetictranscriptions,withanappropriateISO639code.Wikipedia'smultilingualsupporttemplatesmayalsobeused -notablynonforOldNorse.Seewhy.(February2020) Thenorthportalofthe12th-centuryUrnesstavechurchhasbeeninterpretedascontainingdepictionsofsnakesanddragonsthatrepresentRagnarök.[1] InNorsemythology,Ragnarök(/ˈræɡnəˌrɒk,ˈrɑːɡ-/(listen);[2][3][4]OldNorse:Ragnarǫk[ˈrɑɣnɑˌrɔk],"FateoftheGods")isaseriesofevents,includingagreatbattle,foretoldtoleadtothedeathofanumberofgreatfigures(includingthegodsOdin,Thor,Týr,Freyr,Heimdallr,andLoki),naturaldisastersandthesubmersionoftheworldinwater.Aftertheseevents,theworldwillresurfaceanewandfertile,thesurvivingandreturninggodswillmeetandtheworldwillberepopulatedbytwohumansurvivors.RagnarökisanimportanteventinNorsemythologyandhasbeenthesubjectofscholarlydiscourseandtheoryinthehistoryofGermanicstudies. TheeventisattestedprimarilyinthePoeticEdda,compiledinthe13thcenturyfromearliertraditionalsourcesandtheProseEdda,writteninthe13thcenturybySnorriSturluson.IntheProseEddaandinasinglepoeminthePoeticEdda,theeventisreferredtoasRagnarøkkr[ˈrɑɣnɑˌrøkːz̠](OldNorsefor'TwilightoftheGods'),ausagepopularisedby19th-centurycomposerRichardWagnerwiththetitleofthelastofhisDerRingdesNibelungenoperas,Götterdämmerung(1876),whichis"TwilightoftheGods"inGerman. Contents 1Etymology 2Presenceinliterature 2.1PoeticEdda 2.1.1Völuspá 2.1.2Vafþrúðnismál 2.1.3HelgakviðaHundingsbanaII 2.2ProseEdda 2.2.1Gylfaginningchapters26and34 2.2.2Gylfaginningchapter51 2.2.3Gylfaginningchapters52and53 3Archaeologicalrecord 3.1Thorwald'sCross 3.2GosforthCross 3.3Ledbergstone 3.4Skarpåkerstone 4Theoriesandinterpretations 4.1CyclictimeandHoddmímisholt 4.2Muspille,Heliand,andChristianity 4.3Proto-Indo-Europeanbasis 4.4Volcaniceruptions 4.5Bergbúaþáttr 5Moderninfluences 6Citations 7Generalreferences 8Externallinks Etymology[edit] TheOldNorsecompoundragnarokhasalonghistoryofinterpretation.Itsfirstelement,ragna,isunproblematic,beingthegenitivepluralofregin(n.pl.)"therulingpowers,gods."Thesecondelementismoreproblematic,asitoccursintwovariants,-rökand-røkkr.Writingintheearly20thcentury,philologistGeirZoëgatreatsthetwoformsastwoseparatecompounds,glossingragnarökas"thedoomordestructionofthegods"andragnarøkkras"thetwilightofthegods."[5]Thepluralnounrökhasseveralmeanings,including"development,origin,cause,relation,fate."[6]Thewordragnarökasawholeisthenusuallyinterpretedasthe"finaldestinyofthegods."[7] Thesingularformragnarøk(k)risfoundinastanzaofthePoeticEddapoemLokasenna,andintheProseEdda.Thenounrøk(k)rmeans"twilight"(fromtheverbrøkkva"togrowdark"),suggestingatranslation"twilightofthegods."Thisreadingwaswidelyconsideredaresultoffolketymology,oralearnedreinterpretationoftheoriginaltermduetothemergerof/ɔ/(spelledǫ)and/ø/(spelledø)inOldIcelandicafterc.1200[8] (neverthelessgivingrisetothecalqueGötterdämmerung"TwilightoftheGods"intheGermanreceptionofNorsemythology[9]). OthertermsusedtorefertotheeventssurroundingRagnarökinthePoeticEddaincludealdarrök(aldarmeansage,"endofanage")fromastanzaofVafþrúðnismál,tívarökfromtwostanzasofVafþrúðnismál,þáerregindeyja("whenthegodsdie")fromVafþrúðnismál,unzumrjúfaskregin("whenthegodswillbedestroyed")fromVafþrúðnismál,Lokasenna,andSigrdrífumál,aldarrof("destructionoftheage")fromHelgakviðaHundingsbanaII,reginþrjóta("endofthegods")fromHyndluljóð,and,intheProseEdda,þáerMuspellz-synirherja("whenthesonsofMuspellmoveintobattle")canbefoundinchapters18and36ofGylfaginning.[7] Presenceinliterature[edit] PoeticEdda[edit] ThePoeticEddacontainsvariousreferencestoRagnarök: Völuspá[edit] ThentheAwfulFightBegan(byGeorgeWright,1908) OdinandFenrir,FreyrandSurt(byEmilDoepler,1905) ThorandtheMidgardSerpent(byEmilDoepler,1905) BattleoftheDoomedGods(byFriedrichWilhelmHeine,1882) Thetwilightofthegods(byWillyPogany,1920) InthePoeticEddapoemVöluspá,referencestoRagnarökbeginfromstanza40until58,withtherestofthepoemdescribingtheaftermath.Inthepoem,avölva(afemaleseer)recitesinformationtoOdin.Instanza41,thevölvasays: Fyllizfiǫrvi feigramanna, rýðrragnasiǫt rauðomdreyra. Svǫrtverðasólskin ofsumoreptir, veðrǫllválynd. Vitoðérenn,eðahvat? Itsatesitselfonthelife-blood offatedmen, paintsredthepowers'homes withcrimsongore. Blackbecomethesun'sbeams inthesummersthatfollow, weathersalltreacherous. Doyoustillseektoknow?Andwhat? —NormalizedOldNorse[10] —UrsulaDronketranslation[10] Thevölvathendescribesthreeroosterscrowing:Instanza42,thejötunnherdsmanEggthérsitsonamoundandcheerfullyplayshisharpwhilethecrimsonroosterFjalar(OldNorse"hider,deceiver"[11])crowsintheforestGálgviðr.ThegoldenroosterGullinkambicrowstotheÆsirinValhalla,andthethird,unnamedsoot-redroostercrowsinthehallsoftheunderworldlocationofHelinstanza43.[12] Afterthesestanzas,thevölvafurtherrelatesthatthehoundGarmrproducesdeephowlsinfrontofthecaveofGnipahellir.Garmr'sbindingsbreakandherunsfree.Thevölvadescribesthestateofhumanity: Brœðrmunoberiaz okatbǫnomverða[z] munosystrungar sifiomspilla. Harteríheimi, hórdómrmikill —skeggǫld,skálmǫld —skildirroklofnir— vindǫld,vargǫld— áðrverǫldsteypiz. Munengimaðr ǫðromþyrma. Brotherswillfight andkilleachother, sisters'children willdefilekinship. Itisharshintheworld, whoredomrife —anaxeage,aswordage —shieldsareriven— awindage,awolfage— beforetheworldgoesheadlong. Nomanwillhave mercyonanother. —NormalizedOldNorse[13] —UrsulaDronketranslation[13] The"sonsofMím"aredescribedasbeing"atplay,"thoughthisreferenceisnotfurtherexplainedinsurvivingsources.[14]HeimdallraisestheGjallarhornintotheairandblowsdeeplyintoit,andOdinconverseswithMím'shead.TheworldtreeYggdrasilshuddersandgroans.ThejötunnHrymcomesfromtheeast,hisshieldbeforehim.TheMidgardserpentJörmungandrfuriouslywrithes,causingwavestocrash."Theeagleshrieks,pale-beakedhetearsthecorpse,"andtheshipNaglfarbreaksfreethankstothewavesmadebyJormungandrandsetssailfromtheeast.ThefirejötnarinhabitantsofMuspelheimcomeforth.[15] ThevölvacontinuesthatJötunheimr,thelandofthejötnar,isaroar,andthattheÆsirareincouncil.Thedwarfsgroanbytheirstonedoors.[13]Surtradvancesfromthesouth,hisswordbrighterthanthesun.Rockycliffsopenandthejötnarwomensink.[16] Thegodsthendobattlewiththeinvaders:OdinisswallowedwholeandalivefightingthewolfFenrir,causinghiswifeFrigghersecondgreatsorrow(thefirstbeingthedeathofherson,thegodBaldr).[17]Odin'ssonVíðarravengeshisfatherbyrendingFenrir'sjawsapartandstabbingitintheheartwithhisspear,thuskillingthewolf.TheserpentJörmungandropensitsgapingmaw,yawningwidelyintheair,andismetincombatbyThor.Thor,alsoasonofOdinanddescribedhereasprotectoroftheearth,furiouslyfightstheserpent,defeatingit,butThorisonlyabletotakeninestepsafterwardbeforecollapsing.ThegodFreyrfightsSurtrandloses.Afterthis,peoplefleetheirhomes,andthesunbecomesblackwhiletheearthsinksintothesea,thestarsvanish,steamrises,andflamestouchtheheavens.[18] Thevölvaseestheearthreappearingfromthewater,andaneagleoverawaterfallhuntingfishonamountain.ThesurvivingÆsirmeettogetheratthefieldofIðavöllr.TheydiscussJörmungandr,greateventsofthepast,andtherunicalphabet.Instanza61,inthegrass,theyfindthegoldengamepiecesthatthegodsaredescribedashavingoncehappilyenjoyedplayinggameswithlongago(attestedearlierinthesamepoem).Thereemergedfieldsgrowwithoutneedingtobesown.ThegodsHöðrandBaldrreturnfromHelandlivehappilytogether.[19] ThevölvasaysthatthegodHœnirchooseswoodenslipsfordivination,andthatthesonsoftwobrotherswillwidelyinhabitthewindyworld.SheseesahallthatchedwithgoldinGimlé,wherenobilitywillliveandspendtheirlivespleasurably.[19]Stanzas65,foundintheHauksbókversionofthepoem,referstoa"powerful,mightyone"that"rulesovereverything"andwhowillarrivefromaboveatthecourtofthegods(OldNorseregindómr),[20]whichhasbeeninterpretedasaChristianadditiontothepoem.[21]Instanza66,thevölvaendsheraccountwithadescriptionofthedragonNíðhöggr,corpsesinhisjaws,flyingthroughtheair.Thevölvathen"sinksdown."[22]Itisunclearifstanza66indicatesthatthevölvaisreferringtothepresenttimeorifthisisanelementofthepost-Ragnarökworld.[23] Vafþrúðnismál[edit] AnillustrationofVíðarrstabbingFenrirwhileholdinghisjawsapart(byW.G.Collingwood,inspiredbytheGosforthCross,1908) FenrirandOdin(byLorenzFrølich,1895) TheVanirgodNjörðrismentionedinrelationtoRagnarökinstanza39ofthepoemVafþrúðnismál.Inthepoem,Odin,disguisedasGagnráðr,facesoffwiththewisejötunnVafþrúðnirinabattleofwits.VafþrúðnismálreferencesNjörðr'sstatusasahostageduringtheearlierÆsir–VanirWar,andthathewill"comebackhomeamongthewiseVanir"at"thedoomofmen."[24] Instanza44,OdinposesthequestiontoVafþrúðnirastowhoofmankindwillsurvivethe"famous"Fimbulwinter("MightyWinter"[25]).Vafþrúðnirrespondsinstanza45thatthosesurvivorswillbeLífandLífþrasir,andthattheywillhideintheforestofHoddmímisholt,thattheywillconsumethemorningdew,andwillproducegenerationsofoffspring.Instanza46,OdinaskswhatsunwillcomeintotheskyafterFenrirhasconsumedthesunthatexists.VafþrúðnirrespondsthatSólwillbearadaughterbeforeFenrirassailsher,andthatafterRagnarökthisdaughterwillcontinuehermother'spath.[26] Instanza51,Vafþrúðnirstatesthat,afterSurtr'sflameshavebeensated,Odin'ssonsVíðarrandVáliwillliveinthetemplesofthegods,andthatThor'ssonsMóðiandMagniwillpossessthehammerMjolnir.Instanza52,thedisguisedOdinasksthejötunnaboutOdin'sownfate.Vafþrúðnirrespondsthat"thewolf"willconsumeOdin,andthatVíðarrwillavengehimbysunderingitscoldjawsinbattle.Odinendstheduelwithonefinalquestion:whatdidOdinsaytohissonbeforepreparinghisfuneralpyre?Withthis,VafþrúðnirrealizesthatheisdealingwithnoneotherthanOdin,whomhereferstoas"thewisestofbeings,"addingthatOdinalonecouldknowthis.[27]Odin'smessagehasbeeninterpretedasapromiseofresurrectiontoBaldrafterRagnarök.[28] HelgakviðaHundingsbanaII[edit] Ragnarökisbrieflyreferencedinstanza40ofthepoemHelgakviðaHundingsbanaII.Here,thevalkyrieSigrún'sunnamedmaidispassingthedeceasedheroHelgiHundingsbane'sburialmound.Helgiistherewitharetinueofmen,surprisingthemaid.Themaidasksifsheiswitnessingadelusionsincesheseesdeadmenriding,orifRagnarökhasoccurred.Instanza41,Helgirespondsthatitisneither.[29] ProseEdda[edit] SnorriSturluson'sProseEddaquotesheavilyfromVöluspáandelaboratesextensivelyinproseontheinformationthere,thoughsomeofthisinformationconflictswiththatprovidedinVöluspá. Gylfaginningchapters26and34[edit] LokibreaksfreeattheonsetofRagnarök(byErnstH.Walther,1897) IntheProseEddabookGylfaginning,variousreferencesaremadetoRagnarök.Ragnarökisfirstmentionedinchapter26,wherethethronedfigureofHigh,kingofthehall,tellsGangleri(KingGylfiindisguise)somebasicinformationaboutthegoddessIðunn,includingthatherappleswillkeepthegodsyounguntilRagnarök.[30] Inchapter34,HighdescribesthebindingofthewolfFenrirbythegods,causingthegodTýrtolosehisrighthand,andthatFenrirremainsthereuntilRagnarök.GangleriasksHighwhy,sincethegodscouldonlyexpectdestructionfromFenrir,theydidnotsimplykillFenrironcehewasbound.Highrespondsthat"thegodsholdtheirsacredplacesandsanctuariesinsuchrespectthattheychosenottodefilethemwiththewolf'sblood,eventhoughthepropheciesforetoldthathewouldbethedeathofOdin."[31] AsaconsequenceofhisroleinthedeathofthegodBaldr,Loki(describedasfatherofFenrir)isboundontopofthreestoneswiththeinternalorgansofhissonNarfi(whichareturnedintoiron)inthreeplaces.There,venomdropsontohisfaceperiodicallyfromasnakeplacedbythejötunnSkaði.Loki'swifeSigyncollectsthevenomintoabucket,butwheneversheleavestoemptyit,thedropsreachLoki'sface,andthepainheexperiencescausesconvulsions,resultinginearthquakes.LokiisfurtherdescribedasbeingboundthiswayuntiltheonsetofRagnarök.[32] Gylfaginningchapter51[edit] AscenefromthelastphaseofRagnarök,afterSurtrhasengulfedtheworldwithfire(byEmilDoepler,1905) Chapter51providesadetailedaccountofRagnarökinterspersedwithvariousquotesfromVöluspá,whilechapters52and53describetheaftermathoftheseevents.InChapter51,HighstatesthatthefirstsignofRagnarökwillbeFimbulwinter,duringwhichtimethreewinterswillarrivewithoutasummer,andthesunwillbeuseless.Highdetailsthat,priortothesewinters,threeearlierwinterswillhaveoccurred,markedwithgreatbattlesthroughouttheworld.Duringthistime,greedwillcausebrotherstokillbrothers,andfathersandsonswillsufferfromthecollapseofkinshipbonds.Highthenquotesstanza45ofVöluspá.Next,Highdescribesthatthewolfwillswallowthesun,thenhisbrotherwillswallowthemoon,andmankindwillconsidertheoccurrenceasagreatdisasterresultinginmuchruin.Thestarswilldisappear.Theearthandmountainswillshakesoviolentlythatthetreeswillcomeloosefromthesoil,themountainswilltopple,andallrestraintswillbreak,causingFenrirtobreakfreefromhisbonds.[33] HighrelatesthatthegreatserpentJörmungandr,alsodescribedasachildofLokiinthesamesource,willbreachlandastheseaviolentlyswellsontoit.TheshipNaglfar,describedintheProseEddaasbeingmadefromthehumannailsofthedead,isreleasedfromitsmooring,andsetssailonthesurgingsea,steeredbyajötunnnamedHrym.Atthesametime,Fenrir,eyesandnostrilssprayingflames,chargesforwardwithhismouthwideopen,hisupperjawreachingtotheheavens,hislowerjawtouchingtheearth.AtFenrir'sside,Jörmungandrspraysvenomthroughouttheairandthesea.[34] Duringallofthis,theskysplitsintotwo.Fromthesplit,the"sonsofMuspell"rideforth.Surtrridesfirst,surroundedbyflames,hisswordbrighterthanthesun.Highsaysthat"Muspell'ssons"willrideacrossBifröst,describedinGylfaginningasarainbowbridge,andthatthebridgewillthenbreak.ThesonsofMuspell(andtheirshiningbattletroop)advancetothefieldofVígríðr,describedasanexpansethatreaches"ahundredleaguesineachdirection,"whereFenrir,Jörmungandr,Loki(followedby"Hel'sown"),andHrym(accompaniedbyallfrostjötnar)jointhem.Whilethisoccurs,HeimdallrstandsandblowstheGjallarhornwithallhismight.Thegodsawakenatthesound,andtheymeet.OdinridestoMímisbrunnrinsearchofcounselfromMímir.Yggdrasilshakes,andeverything,everywherefears.[34] HighrelatesthattheÆsirandtheEinherjardressforwarandheadtothefield.Odin,wearingagoldhelmetandanintricatecoatofmail,carrieshisspearGungnirandridesbeforethem.OdinadvancesagainstFenrir,whileThormovesathisside,thoughThorisunabletoassistOdinbecausehehasengagedJörmungandrincombat.AccordingtoHigh,FreyrfightsfiercelywithSurtr,butfallsbecausehelackstheswordheoncegavetohismessenger,Skírnir.ThehoundGarmr(describedhereasthe"worstofmonsters")breaksfreefromhisbondsinfrontofGnipahellir,andfightsthegodTýr,resultinginbothoftheirdeaths.[35] ThorkillsJörmungandrbutispoisonedbytheserpent,andmanagestowalkonlyninestepsbeforefallingtotheearthdead.FenrirswallowsOdin,thoughimmediatelyafterwardhissonVíðarrkickshisfootintoFenrir'slowerjaw,gripstheupperjaw,andripsapartFenrir'smouth,killingthegreatwolf.LokifightsHeimdallrandthetwokilleachother.Surtrcoverstheearthinfire,causingtheentireworldtoburn.Highquotesstanzas46to47ofVöluspá,andadditionallystanza18ofVafþrúðnismál(thelatterrelatinginformationaboutthebattlefieldVígríðr).[36] Gylfaginningchapters52and53[edit] Atthebeginningofchapter52,Gangleriasks"whatwillbeafterheavenandearthandthewholeworldareburned?Allthegodswillbedead,togetherwiththeEinherjarandthewholeofmankind.Didn'tyousayearlierthateachpersonwillliveinsomeworldthroughoutallages?"[37] ThefigureofThird,seatedonthehighestthroneinthehall,respondsthattherewillbemanygoodplacestolive,butalsomanybadones.ThirdstatesthatthebestplacetobeisGimléintheheavens,whereaplaceexistscalledOkolnirthathousesahallcalledBrimir—whereonecanfindplentytodrink.ThirddescribesahallmadeofredgoldlocatedinNiðafjöllcalledSindri,where"goodandvirtuousmenwilllive."[37]ThirdfurtherrelatesanunnamedhallinNáströnd,thebeachesofthedead,thathedescribesasalargerepugnanthallfacingnorththatisbuiltfromthespinesofsnakes,andresembles"ahousewithwallswovenfrombranches";theheadsofthesnakesfacetheinsideofthehouseandspewsomuchvenomthatriversofitflowthroughoutthehall,inwhichoathbreakersandmurderersmustwade.ThirdherequotesVöluspástanzas38to39,withtheinsertionoforiginalprosestatingthattheworstplaceofalltobeisinHvergelmir,followedbyaquotefromVöluspátohighlightthatthedragonNíðhöggrharassesthecorpsesofthedeadthere.[38] Chapter53beginswithGangleriaskingifanyofthegodswillsurvive,andiftherewillbeanythingleftoftheearthorthesky.Highrespondsthattheearthwillappearoncemorefromthesea,beautifulandgreen,whereself-sowncropsgrow.ThefieldIðavöllrexistswhereAsgardoncewas,and,there,untouchedbySurtr'sflames,VíðarrandVálireside.Nowpossessingtheirfather'shammerMjölnir,Thor'ssonsMóðiandMagniwillmeetthemthere,and,comingfromHel,BaldrandHöðralsoarrive.Together,theyallsitandrecountmemories,laterfindingthegoldgamepiecestheÆsironceowned.Völuspástanza51isthenquoted.[39] Highrevealsthattwohumans,LífandLífþrasir,willhavealsosurvivedthedestructionbyhidinginthewoodHoddmímisholt.Thesetwosurvivorsconsumethemorningdewforsustenance,andfromtheirdescendantstheworldwillberepopulated.Vafþrúðnismálstanza45isthenquoted.Thepersonifiedsun,Sól,willhaveadaughteratleastasbeautifulasshe,andthisdaughterwillfollowthesamepathashermother.Vafþrúðnismálstanza47isquoted,andsoendstheforetellingofRagnarökinGylfaginning.[40] ThenewworldthatrisesafterRagnarök,asdescribedinVöluspá(depictionbyEmilDoepler) AdepictionofLífandLífthrasir(byLorenzFrølich,1895) Archaeologicalrecord[edit] Thorwald'sCross,onthegroundsofKirkAndreas,IsleofMan VariousobjectshavebeenidentifiedasdepictingeventsfromRagnarök. Thorwald'sCross[edit] Thorwald'sCross,apartiallysurvivingrunestoneerectedatKirkAndreasontheIsleofMan,depictsabeardedhumanholdingaspeardownwardatawolf,hisrightfootinitsmouth,whilealargebirdsitsathisshoulder.[41]Rundatadatesitto940,[42]whilePluskowskidatesittothe11thcentury.[41]ThisdepictionhasbeeninterpretedasOdin,witharavenoreagleathisshoulder,beingconsumedbyFenriratRagnarök.[41][43]OntheothersideofthestoneisadepictionofalargecrossandanotherimageparalleltotheOdinfigurethathasbeendescribedasChristtriumphingoverSatan.[44]Thesecombinedelementshaveledtothecrossasbeingdescribedas"syncreticart,"amixtureofpaganandChristianbeliefs.[41] GosforthCross[edit] TheGosforthCross(920–950),inCumbria,England,isastandingcrossofatypicalAnglo-Saxonform,carvedonallsidesofthelongshaft,whichisnearlysquareinsection.Apartfrompanelsofornament,thescenesincludeaChristiancrucifixion,andpossiblyanothersceneinHell,buttheotherscenesaregenerallyinterpretedasnarrativeincidentsfromtheRagnarökstory,[45]evenbyascholarascautiousofsuchinterpretationsasDavidM.Wilson.[41][46]TheRagnarökbattleitselfmaybedepictedonthenorthside.[47]ThecrossfeaturesvariousfiguresdepictedinBorrestyle,includingamanwithaspearfacingamonstroushead,withonefootthrustintothebeast'sforkedtongueandonitslowerjaw,andtheotherisagainstitsupperjaw,asceneinterpretedasVíðarrfightingFenrir.[41] Ledbergstone[edit] AcompositeimageofthreedifferentanglesoftheLedbergstone The11thcenturyLedbergstoneinSweden,similarlytoThorwald'sCross,featuresafigurewithhisfootatthemouthofafour-leggedbeast,andthismayalsobeadepictionofOdinbeingdevouredbyFenriratRagnarök.[43]Belowthebeastandthemanisadepictionofalegless,helmetedman,withhisarmsinaprostrateposition.[43]TheYoungerFutharkinscriptiononthestonebearsacommonlyseenmemorialdedication,butisfollowedbyanencodedrunicsequencethathasbeendescribedas"mysterious,"[48]and"aninterestingmagicformulawhichisknownfromallovertheancientNorseworld."[43] Skarpåkerstone[edit] Ontheearly11thcenturySkarpåkerStone,fromSödermanland,Sweden,afathergrievinghisdeadsonusedthesameverseform,fornyrðislag,asinthePoeticEddainthefollowingengraving: Iarðskalrifna okupphiminn Earthshallberiven andtheover-heaven. Jansson(1987)notesthatatthetimeoftheinscription,everyonewhoreadthelineswouldhavethoughtofRagnarökandtheallusionthatthefatherfoundfittingasanexpressionofhisgrief.[49] Theoriesandinterpretations[edit] Ragnarök(MotiffromtheHeyshamHogback)(byW.G.Collingwood,1908) TheDownfalloftheÆsirbyKarlEhrenberg,1882 CyclictimeandHoddmímisholt[edit] RudolfSimektheorizesthatthesurvivalofLífandLífþrasirattheendofRagnarökis"acaseofreduplicationoftheanthropogeny,understandablefromthecyclicnatureoftheEddiceschatology."SimeksaysthatHoddmímisholt"shouldnotbeunderstoodliterallyasawoodorevenaforestinwhichthetwokeepthemselveshidden,butratherasanalternativenamefortheworld-treeYggdrasill.Thus,thecreationofmankindfromtreetrunks(Askr,Embla)isrepeatedaftertheRagnarökaswell."SimeksaysthatinGermanicregions,theconceptofmankindoriginatingfromtreesisancient,andadditionallypointsoutlegendaryparallelsinaBavarianlegendofashepherdwholivesinsideatree,whosedescendantsrepopulatethelandafterlifetherehasbeenwipedoutbyplague(citingaretellingbyF.R.Schröder).Inaddition,SimekpointstoanOldNorseparallelinthefigureofÖrvar-Oddr,"whoisrejuvenatedafterlivingasatree-man(Ǫrvar-Oddssaga24–27)."[50] Muspille,Heliand,andChristianity[edit] TheorieshavebeenproposedabouttherelationbetweenRagnarökandthe9thcenturyOldHighGermanepicpoemMuspilliabouttheChristianLastJudgment,wherethewordMuspilleappears,andthe9thcenturyOldSaxonepicpoemHeliandaboutthelifeofChrist,wherevariousotherformsofthewordappear.Inbothsources,thewordisusedtosignifytheendoftheworldthroughfire.[51]OldNorseformsofthetermalsoappearthroughoutaccountsofRagnarök,wheretheworldisalsoconsumedinflames,and,thoughvarioustheoriesexistaboutthemeaningandoriginsoftheterm,itsetymologyhasnotbeensolved.[51] Proto-Indo-Europeanbasis[edit] ParallelshavebeenpointedoutbetweentheRagnarökofNorsereligionandthebeliefsofotherrelatedIndo-Europeanpeoples.Subsequently,theorieshavebeenputforththatRagnarökrepresentsalaterevolutionofaProto-Indo-EuropeanbeliefalongwithotherculturesdescendingfromtheProto-Indo-Europeans.TheseparallelsincludecomparisonsofacosmicwintermotifbetweentheNorseFimbulwinter,theIranianBundahishnandYima.[52]Víðarr'sstridehasbeencomparedtotheVedicgodVishnuinthatbothhavea"cosmicstride"withaspecialshoeusedtotearapartabeastlywolf.[52]Largerpatternshavealsobeendrawnbetween"finalbattle"eventsinIndo-Europeancultures,includingtheoccurrenceofablindorsemi-blindfigurein"finalbattle"themes,andfiguresappearingsuddenlywithsurprisingskills.[52] Volcaniceruptions[edit] HildaEllisDavidsontheorizesthattheeventsinVöluspáoccurringafterthedeathofthegods(thesunturningblack,steamrising,flamestouchingtheheavens,etc.)maybeinspiredbythevolcaniceruptionsonIceland.RecordsoferuptionsonIcelandbearstrongsimilaritiestothesequenceofeventsdescribedinVöluspá,especiallytheeruptionatLakithatoccurredin1783.[53]BerthaPhillpottstheorizesthatthefigureofSurtrwasinspiredbyIcelandiceruptions,andthathewasavolcanodemon.[54]Surtr'snameoccursinsomeIcelandicplacenames,amongthemthelavatubeSurtshellir,anumberofdarkcavernsinthevolcaniccentralregionofIceland.[55] Bergbúaþáttr[edit] Parallelshavebeenpointedoutbetweenapoemspokenbyajötunnfoundinthe13thcenturyþáttrBergbúaþáttr("thetaleofthemountaindweller").Inthetale,Thórdandhisservantgetlostwhiletravelingtochurchinwinter,andsotakeshelterforthenightwithinacave.Insidethecavetheyhearnoises,witnessapairofimmenseburningeyes,andthenthebeingwithburningeyesrecitesapoemof12stanzas.ThepoemthebeingrecitescontainsreferencestoNorsemythology(includingamentionofThor)andalsoprophecies(includingthat"mountainswilltumble,theearthwillmove,menwillbescouredbyhotwaterandburnedbyfire").Surtr'sfirereceivesamentioninstanza10.JohnLindowsaysthatthepoemmaydescribe"amixofthedestructionoftheraceofgiantsandofhumans,asinRagnarök"butthat"manyofthepredictionsofdisruptiononearthcouldalsofitthevolcanicactivitythatissocommoninIceland."[56] Moderninfluences[edit] TheeventsofRagnarokaredramatized,albeitbriefly,inHansChristianAndersen'sfairytale"TheMarshKing'sDaughter". Inlate2013andearly2014,English-languagemediaoutletswidelyreportedthatRagnarökwasforetoldtooccuron22February2014.[57]Apparentlypatternedafterthe2012phenomenon,theclaimwasattimesattributedtoa"VikingCalendar".Nosuchcalendarisknowntohaveexisted,andthesourcewasa"prediction"madetomediaoutletsbytheJorvikVikingCentreinYork,England,intendedtodrawattentiontoaneventthattheinstitutionwastoholdonthatdate.TheJorvikVikingCentrewascriticizedformisleadingthepublictopromotetheevent.Ina2014articleontheclaims,philologistJosephS.HopkinsperceivesthemediaresponseasanexampleofabroadrevivalofinterestintheVikingAgeandancientGermanictopics.[58] TheNorwegianfilmGåtenRagnarokwasreleasedin2013andcentresonthediscoveryofthemythicalserpentincontemporaryFinnmark. TheconceptofRagnarökiscentraltothe2017MarvelCinematicUniversefilmThor:Ragnarok,[59]atwhoseclimaxthedemonSurturdestroysAsgardasitspeoplefleeintospaceundertheguidanceofThor,Valkyrie,Loki,Heimdall,Hulk,andKorg. A.S.ByattpublishedanovelentitledRagnarok:TheEndoftheGodsin2011. Thesequeltothe2018videogameGodofWar,whichisrootedinNorsemythology,istitledGodofWarRagnarökandisexpectedtofollowthein-gameuniverse'sportrayalofRagnarök. NorsemythologyandclimatechangeinspiredtheeponymousTVseriesRagnarok.[60]ThetownofEddainWesternNorwayisplaguedbyclimatechangeandindustrialpollutioncausedbythefactoriesownedbytheJutulfamily(Jotunn=giants).Theyarechallengedbyateenagedboy,Magne,whocomestoseehimselfastheembodimentofThor.ThusbeginstheeventRagnarok("twilightofthegods"),thefightagainstthosewhoaredestroyingtheplanet. In2022,Assassin'sCreed:ValhallareleaseditsthirdDLCtitledDawnofRagnarok.SetintheiruniverseasRagnarokbegins. Citations[edit] ^Fazio,Moffett&Wodehouse2003,p. 201. ^"Ragnarok".TheAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(5th ed.).HarperCollins.Retrieved11May2019. ^"Ragnarök".CollinsEnglishDictionary.HarperCollins.Retrieved11May2019. ^"Ragnarök"(US)and"Ragnarök".OxfordDictionariesUKEnglishDictionary.OxfordUniversityPress.n.d.Retrieved11May2019. ^Zoëga2004,p. 345. ^"reason,ground,origin,""wonder,marvel,"tívarök"thelifeanddoingsofthegods,"þjóðarök"origin,creationofmankind,"íaldarrök"attheendoftheworld"(Zoëga2004,p. 345);Proto-Germanic*rakō(Bjordvand&Lindeman2007,pp. 856–857). ^abSimek2007,p. 259. ^Bjordvand&Lindeman2007,pp. 856–857,forexample. ^Lindow2001,p. 254. ^abDronke1997,p. 18. ^Orchard1997,p. 43. ^Larrington1999,p. 9. ^abcDronke1997,p. 19. ^Larrington1999,p. 265. ^Larrington1999,p. 10. ^Bellows2004,p. 22. ^Larrington1999,p. 266. ^Bellows2004,p. 23. ^abLarrington1999,p. 12. ^Simek2007,p. 262. ^Lindow2001,p. 257. ^Larrington1999,p. 13. ^Larrington1999,p. 3. ^Larrington1999,p. 46. ^Lindow2001,p. 115. ^Larrington1999,p. 47. ^Larrington1999,pp. 48–49. ^Larrington1999,p. 269. ^Larrington1999,p. 139. ^Byock2005,p. 36. ^Byock2005,p. 42. ^Byock2005,p. 70. ^Byock2005,pp. 71–72. ^abByock2005,p. 72. ^Byock2005,p. 73. ^Byock2005,pp. 73–75. ^abByock2005,p. 76. ^Byock2005,pp. 76–77. ^Byock2005,p. 77. ^Byock2005,pp. 77–78. ^abcdefPluskowski2004,p. 158. ^EntryBrOlsen;185AinRundata2.0 ^abcdJansson1987,p. 152. ^Hunter&Ralston1999,p. 200. ^Bailey2002,pp. 15–23. ^Wilson1984,p. 149–150. ^Orchard1997,p. 13. ^MacLeod&Mees2006,p. 145. ^Jansson1987,p. 141. ^Simek2007,p. 189.ForSchröder,seeSchröder(1931). ^abSimek2007,pp. 222–224. ^abcMallory&Adams1997,pp. 182–183. ^Davidson1990,pp. 208–209. ^Phillpotts1905,pp. 14ff.,inDavidson(1990,p. 208) ^Patel,SamirS.(2017)."TheBlackener'sCave :VikingAgeoutlaws,taboo,andritualinIceland'slavafields".Archaeology.70(3):36.ISSN 0003-8113. ^Lindow2001,pp. 73–74. ^Richards,Chris(17February2014)."WilltheworldENDnextweek?Vikingapocalypse'Ragnarok'duetoarriveonFebruary22".DailyMirror. ^Hopkins2014,pp. 7–12. ^Strom,Marc(28October2014)."ThorBringsRagnaroktotheMarvelCinematicUniversein2017".Marvel.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon28October2014.Retrieved28October2014. ^Thorvik,HannahBull(28January2020)."Likedårligsomdethøresut".Dagbladet(inNorwegian).Retrieved3February2020. Generalreferences[edit] Bailey,RichardN.(2002)."ScandinavianMythonViking-periodStoneSculptureinEngland".InBarnes,Geraldine;Ross,MargaretClunies(eds.).OldNorseMyths,Literature,andSociety(PDF).Sydney:UniversityofSydney.ISBN 1-86487-316-7. Bellows,HenryAdams(2004).ThePoeticEdda:TheMythologicalPoems.DoverPublications.ISBN 0-486-43710-8. Bjordvand,Harald;Lindeman,FredrikOtto(2007).Vårearveord.Novus.ISBN 978-82-7099-467-0. JesseByock(Trans.)(2005).TheProseEdda.PenguinClassics.PenguinBooks.ISBN 0-14-044755-5. Dronke,Ursula(Trans.)(1997).ThePoeticEdda:VolumeII:MythologicalPoems.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-811181-9. Davidson,H.R.Ellis(1990).GodsandMythsofNorthernEurope.PenguinBooks.ISBN 0-14-013627-4. Fazio,MichaelW.;Moffett,Marian;Wodehouse,Lawrence(2003).AWorldHistoryofArchitecture.McGraw-HillProfessional.ISBN 0-07-141751-6. Bernharðsson,Haraldur(2007)."OldIcelandicRagnarökandRagnarökkr".InNussbaum,AlanJ.(ed.).VerbaDocenti.pp. 25–38.ISBN 978-0-9747927-3-6. Hopkins,JosephS.(2014)."The'VikingApocalypse'of22ndFebruary2014:AnAnalysisoftheJorvikVikingCenter'sRagnarökandItsMediaReception".RMNNewsletter.UniversityofHelsinki.8:7–12.ISSN 2324-0636. Hunter,John;Ralston,Ian(eds.)(1999).TheArchaeologyofBritain:AnIntroductionfromtheUpperPalaeolithictotheIndustrialRevolution.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-13588-7.{{citebook}}:|first2=hasgenericname(help) Jansson,SvenB.(1987).RunesinSweden.Stockholm,Gidlund.ISBN 91-7844-067-X. Larrington,Carolyne(Trans.)(1999).ThePoeticEdda.OxfordWorld'sClassics.ISBN 0-19-283946-2. Lindow,John(2001).NorseMythology:AGuidetoGods,Heroes,Rituals,andBeliefs.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-515382-0. MacLeod,Mindy;Mees,Bernard(2006).RunicAmuletsandMagicObjects.BoydellPress.ISBN 1-84383-205-4. Mallory,J.P.;Adams,DouglasQ.(1997).EncyclopediaofIndo-EuropeanCulture.Taylor&Francis.ISBN 1-884964-98-2. Orchard,Andy(1997).DictionaryofNorseMythandLegend.Cassell.ISBN 0-304-34520-2. Phillpotts,Bertha(1905)."Surt".ArkivförNordiskFilologi.21:14ff. Pluskowski,Aleks(2004)."ApocalypticMonsters:AnimalInspirationsfortheIconographyofMedievalNorthernDevourers".InBildhauer,Bettina;Mills,Robert(eds.).TheMonstrousMiddleAges.UniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN 0-8020-8667-5. Rundata2.0forWindows. Simek,Rudolf(2007).DictionaryofNorthernMythology.translatedbyAngelaHall.D.S.Brewer.ISBN 978-0-85991-513-7. Wilson,DavidM.(1984).Anglo-SaxonArt:FromtheSeventhCenturytotheNormanConquest.OverlookPress.ISBN 978-0-87951-976-6. Zoëga,Geir(2004)[1910].AConciseDictionaryofOldIcelandic.UniversityofToronto.ISBN 0-8020-8659-4. Externallinks[edit] QuotationsrelatedtoRagnarökatWikiquote ThedictionarydefinitionofRagnarokatWiktionary MediarelatedtoRagnarökatWikimediaCommons vteNorsepaganismandmythologyMythologicalNorsepeople,itemsandplacesNorsedeitiesdwarfs,jötnar,andotherfiguresÆsir Baldr Bragi Dellingr Forseti Heimdall Hermóðr Höðr Hœnir Ítreksjóð Lóðurr Loki Máni Meili Mímir MóðiandMagni Odin Óðr Thor Týr Ullr Váli Víðarr ViliandVé Ásynjur Bil Eir(valkyrie) Frigg Fulla Gefjon Gerðr Gná Hlín Iðunn Ilmr Irpa Lofn Nanna Njörun Rán Rindr Sága Sif Sigyn Sjöfn Skaði Snotra Sól Syn ÞorgerðrHölgabrúðr Þrúðr Vár Vör Vanir Freyja Freyr Ingunar-Freyr Yngvi Gersemi Gullveig Hnoss Kvasir Njörðr Sister-wifeofNjörðr Jötnar Ægir Alvaldi Angrboða Aurboða Baugi Beli Bergelmir Bestla Bölþorn Býleistr Eggþér Fárbauti Fjölvar Fornjót Gangr Geirröðr Gillingr GjálpandGreip Gríðr Gunnlöð Gymir Harðgreipr Helblindi Helreginn Hljod Hræsvelgr Hrímgerðr Hrímgrímnir Hrímnir Hroðr Hrungnir Hrymr Hymir Hyrrokkin Iði Ím Járnsaxa Laufey Leikn Litr Logi Mögþrasir Narfi Sökkmímir Surtr Suttungr Þjazi Þökk Þrívaldi Þrúðgelmir Þrymr Útgarða-Loki Vafþrúðnir Váli Víðblindi Vosud Vörnir Ymir Dwarfs Alvíss Andvari Billingr Brokkr Dáinn Durinn Dúrnir Dvalinn Eitri Fafnir FjalarandGalar Gandalf Hreiðmarr Litr Mótsognir Norðri,Suðri,AustriandVestri Ótr Regin SonsofIvaldi Heroes ListoffiguresinGermanicheroiclegend A B–C D–E F–G H–He Hi–Hy I–O P–S T–Y namedanimalsandplants namedweapons,armourandtreasures Others AskandEmbla Auðumbla Aurvandill Beyla Borr Búri Byggvir Dísir(Landdísir) Dragons Einherjar Eldir Elves Darkelves(Dökkálfar) Lightelves(Ljósálfar) Blackelves(Svartálfar) Fimafeng Fjalar(rooster) Fenrir FjörgynandFjörgynn Fylgja Garmr Gullinbursti HatiHróðvitnisson Hel Hildisvíni Hjúki HorsesoftheÆsir ÁrvakrandAlsviðr Blóðughófi Falhófnir Gísl Glaðr Glær Glenr Grani Gullfaxi Gulltoppr Gyllir HamskerpirandGarðrofa Hófvarpnir SkinfaxiandHrímfaxi Sleipnir Svaðilfari Jafnhárr Jörð Jörmungandr LífandLífthrasir Loddfáfnir Móðguðr NineDaughtersofÆgirandRán NineMothersofHeimdallr Narfi/Nari Níðhöggr Norns Personifications Dagr Elli Nótt SumarrandVetr Skírnir Sköll Shield-maiden TanngrisnirandTanngnjóstr ÞjálfiandRöskva Vættir(Landvættir) Valkyries Völundr Vörðr LocationsUnderworld Hel Éljúðnir Gjallarbrú Náströnd Niflhel Niðafjöll Rivers Élivágar Gjöll Ífingr Kerlaugar KörmtandÖrmt SlidrRiver Vadgelmir VimurRiver Otherlocations Asgard Amsvartnir Andlang Barri Bifröst Bilskirnir Brávellir Brimir Fensalir Fólkvangr Fornsigtuna Fyrisvellir Gálgviðr Gandvik Gastropnir Gimlé Ginnungagap Glaðsheimr Glæsisvellir Glitnir Gnipahellir Groveoffetters Heiðr Himinbjörg Hindarfjall Hlidskjalf Hnitbjorg Hoddmímisholt Iðavöllr Járnviðr Mímameiðr Myrkviðr Munarvágr Nóatún Okolnir Sessrúmnir Sindri Singasteinn Þrúðheimr Þrúðvangr Þrymheimr Uppsala Útgarðar Valaskjálf Valhalla Vanaheimr Víðbláinn Vígríðr Vingólf Wells Hvergelmir Mímisbrunnr Urðarbrunnr Ýdalir Yggdrasil Events Æsir–VanirWar Fimbulvetr Fróði'sPeace Hjaðningavíg Ragnarök Sources GestaDanorum PoeticEdda Runestones Sagas SnorriSturluson ProseEdda TyrfingCycle VölsungCycle OldNorselanguage Orthography Laterinfluence SocietyCulticpractice AnthropomorphicwoodencultfigurinesofCentralandNorthernEurope Blót Hof Heitstrenging Hörgr Worship Öndvegissúlur Reginnaglar SacredtreesandgrovesinGermanicpaganismandmythology TempleatUppsala Vé Festivalsandholyperiods Álfablót Dísablót Germaniccalendar Þorrablót Vetrnætr Yule Other Ergi Félag Galdr Goði Hamingja Heiti Kenning Meadhall Nīþ Norsecosmology Numbers Philosophy Runes Seiðr Skald VikingAge Völva Seealso Germanicpaganism Heathenry(newreligiousmovement) NordicBronzeAge vteGlobalcatastrophicrisks FutureoftheEarth Futureofanexpandinguniverse Ultimatefateoftheuniverse Technological Chemicalwarfare Cyberattack Cyberwarfare Cyberterrorism Cybergeddon DoomsdayClock Graygoo Nanoweapons Kineticbombardment Relativistickinetickillvehicle Mutualassureddestruction DeadHand Doomsdaydevice Antimatterweapon 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