Suffering - Wikipedia

Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an ... Suffering FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Pain,mental,oremotionalunhappiness Forphysicalpain,seePain.Forotheruses,seeSuffer(disambiguation)andTheSuffering(disambiguation). TragicmaskonthefaçadeoftheRoyalDramaticTheatreinStockholm,Sweden PartofaseriesonEmotions Affect Classification Inanimals Emotionalintelligence Mood Regulation Interpersonal Dysregulation Valence Emotions Acceptance Admiration Affection Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Boredom Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Elevation Embarrassment Empathy Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Faith Fear Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Interest Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Love Lust Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Relief Remorse Resentment Sadness Self-pity Shame Shock Shyness Socialconnection Sorrow Suffering Surprise Suspicion Trust Wonder Worry vte Suffering,orpaininabroadsense,[1]maybeanexperienceofunpleasantnessandaversionassociatedwiththeperceptionofharmorthreatofharminanindividual.[2]Sufferingisthebasicelementthatmakesupthenegativevalenceofaffectivephenomena.Theoppositeofsufferingispleasureorhappiness. Sufferingisoftencategorizedasphysical[3]ormental.[4]Itmaycomeinalldegreesofintensity,frommildtointolerable.Factorsofdurationandfrequencyofoccurrenceusuallycompoundthatofintensity.Attitudestowardsufferingmayvarywidely,inthesuffererorotherpeople,accordingtohowmuchitisregardedasavoidableorunavoidable,usefuloruseless,deservedorundeserved. Sufferingoccursinthelivesofsentientbeingsinnumerousmanners,oftendramatically.Asaresult,manyfieldsofhumanactivityareconcernedwithsomeaspectsofsuffering.Theseaspectsmayincludethenatureofsuffering,itsprocesses,itsoriginandcauses,itsmeaningandsignificance,itsrelatedpersonal,social,andculturalbehaviors,[5]itsremedies,management,anduses. Contents 1Terminology 2Philosophy 2.1AncientGreekphilosophy 2.2Modernphilosophy 3Religion 4Artsandliterature 5Socialsciences 6Biology,neurology,psychology 7Healthcare 7.1Mentalillness 8Reliefandpreventioninsociety 9Uses 10Seealso 11Selectedbibliography 12References Terminology[edit] Thewordsufferingissometimesusedinthenarrowsenseofphysicalpain,butmoreoftenitreferstopsychologicalpain,ormoreoftenyetitreferstopaininthebroadsense,i.e.toanyunpleasantfeeling,emotionorsensation.Thewordpainusuallyreferstophysicalpain,butitisalsoacommonsynonymofsuffering.Thewordspainandsufferingareoftenusedbothtogetherindifferentways.Forinstance,theymaybeusedasinterchangeablesynonyms.Ortheymaybeusedin'contradistinction'tooneanother,asin"painisphysical,sufferingismental",or"painisinevitable,sufferingisoptional".Ortheymaybeusedtodefineeachother,asin"painisphysicalsuffering",or"sufferingisseverephysicalormentalpain". Qualifiers,suchasphysical,mental,emotional,andpsychological,areoftenusedtorefertocertaintypesofpainorsuffering.Inparticular,mentalpain(orsuffering)maybeusedinrelationshipwithphysicalpain(orsuffering)fordistinguishingbetweentwowidecategoriesofpainorsuffering.Afirstcaveatconcerningsuchadistinctionisthatitusesphysicalpaininasensethatnormallyincludesnotonlythe'typicalsensoryexperienceofphysicalpain'butalsootherunpleasantbodilyexperiencesincludingairhunger,hunger,vestibularsuffering,nausea,sleepdeprivation,anditching.Asecondcaveatisthatthetermsphysicalormentalshouldnotbetakentooliterally:physicalpainorsuffering,asamatteroffact,happensthroughconsciousmindsandinvolvesemotionalaspects,whilementalpainorsufferinghappensthroughphysicalbrainsand,beinganemotion,involvesimportantphysiologicalaspects. Thewordunpleasantness,whichsomepeopleuseasasynonymofsufferingorpaininthebroadsense,mayrefertothebasicaffectivedimensionofpain(itssufferingaspect),usuallyincontrastwiththesensorydimension,asforinstanceinthissentence:"Pain-unpleasantnessisoften,thoughnotalways,closelylinkedtoboththeintensityanduniquequalitiesofthepainfulsensation."[6]Othercurrentwordsthathaveadefinitionwithsomesimilaritytosufferingincludedistress,unhappiness,misery,affliction,woe,ill,discomfort,displeasure,disagreeableness. Philosophy[edit] AncientGreekphilosophy[edit] ManyoftheHellenisticphilosophiesaddressedsuffering. InCynicism(philosophy)sufferingisalleviatedbyachievingmentalclarityorlucidity(ἁτυφια)(literally"freedomfromsmoke(τύφος)"whichsignifiedfalsebelief,mindlessness,folly,andconceit),developingself-sufficiency(αὐτάρκεια),equanimity,arete,loveofhumanity,parrhesia,andindifferencetothevicissitudesoflife(adiaphoraἁδιαφορία). ForPyrrhonism,sufferingcomesfromdogmas(i.e.beliefsregardingnon-evidentmatters),mostparticularlybeliefsthatcertainthingsareeithergoodorbadbynature.Sufferingcanberemovedbydevelopingepoche(suspensionofjudgment)regardingbeliefs,whichleadstoataraxia(mentaltranquility). PartofaseriesonHedonism Thinkers AjitaKesakambali JeremyBentham JohnStuartMill JulienOffraydeLaMettrie Aristippus Epicurus FredFeldman TheodorustheAtheist MichelOnfray AristippustheYounger Hermarchus Lucretius PierreGassendi MetrodorusofLampsacus DavidPearce ZenoofSidon YangZhu TorbjörnTännsjö EsperanzaGuisán PeterSinger Schoolsofhedonism Charvaka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christianhedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Psychologicalhedonism Ethicalhedonism Axiologicalhedonism Keyconcepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Relatedarticles Paradoxofhedonism Hedonictreadmill vte Epicurus(contrarytocommonmisperceptionsofhisdoctrine)advocatedthatweshouldfirstseektoavoidsuffering(aponia)andthatthegreatestpleasureliesinataraxia,freefromtheworrisomepursuitortheunwelcomeconsequencesofephemeralpleasures.Epicureanism'sversionofHedonism,asanethicaltheory,claimsthatgoodandbadconsistultimatelyinpleasureandpain. ForStoicism,thegreatestgoodliesinreasonandvirtue,butthesoulbestreachesitthroughakindofindifference(apatheia)topleasureandpain:asaconsequence,thisdoctrinehasbecomeidentifiedwithsternself-controlinregardtosuffering. Modernphilosophy[edit] PartofaseriesonUtilitarianism Predecessors Mozi Epicurus Śāntideva DavidHume ClaudeAdrienHelvétius WilliamGodwin FrancisHutcheson WilliamPaley Keyproponents JeremyBentham JohnStuartMill HenrySidgwick R.M.Hare PeterSinger Typesofutilitarianism Negative Rule Act Two-level Total Average Preference Classical Keyconcepts Pain Suffering Pleasure Utility Happiness Eudaimonia Consequentialism Equalconsideration Felicificcalculus Utilitariansocialchoicerule Problems Demandingnessobjection Mereadditionparadox Paradoxofhedonism Replaceabilityargument Utilitymonster Relatedtopics Rationalchoicetheory Gametheory Neoclassicaleconomics Populationethics Effectivealtruism Philosophyportalvte JeremyBenthamdevelopedhedonisticutilitarianism,apopulardoctrineinethics,politics,andeconomics.Benthamarguedthattherightactorpolicywasthatwhichwouldcause"thegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber".Hesuggestedaprocedurecalledhedonicorfelicificcalculus,fordetermininghowmuchpleasureandpainwouldresultfromanyaction.JohnStuartMillimprovedandpromotedthedoctrineofhedonisticutilitarianism.KarlPopper,inTheOpenSocietyandItsEnemies,proposedanegativeutilitarianism,whichprioritizesthereductionofsufferingovertheenhancementofhappinesswhenspeakingofutility:"Ibelievethatthereis,fromtheethicalpointofview,nosymmetrybetweensufferingandhappiness,orbetweenpainandpleasure....humansufferingmakesadirectmoralappealforhelp,whilethereisnosimilarcalltoincreasethehappinessofamanwhoisdoingwellanyway."DavidPearce,forhispart,advocatesautilitarianismthataimsstraightforwardlyattheabolitionofsufferingthroughtheuseofbiotechnology(seemoredetailsbelowinsectionBiology,neurology,psychology).AnotheraspectworthyofmentionhereisthatmanyutilitarianssinceBenthamholdthatthemoralstatusofabeingcomesfromitsabilitytofeelpleasureandpain:therefore,moralagentsshouldconsidernotonlytheinterestsofhumanbeingsbutalsothoseof(other)animals.RichardRydercametothesameconclusioninhisconceptsof'speciesism'and'painism'.PeterSinger'swritings,especiallythebookAnimalLiberation,representtheleadingedgeofthiskindofutilitarianismforanimalsaswellasforpeople. Anotherdoctrinerelatedtothereliefofsufferingishumanitarianism(seealsohumanitarianprinciples,humanitarianaid,andhumanesociety)."Wherehumanitarianeffortsseekapositiveadditiontothehappinessofsentientbeings,itistomaketheunhappyhappyratherthanthehappyhappier....[Humanitarianism]isaningredientinmanysocialattitudes;inthemodernworldithassopenetratedintodiversemovements...thatitcanhardlybesaidtoexistinitself."[7] Pessimistsholdthisworldtobemainlybad,oreventheworstpossible,plaguedwith,amongotherthings,unbearableandunstoppablesuffering.Someidentifysufferingasthenatureoftheworldandconcludethatitwouldbebetteriflifedidnotexistatall.ArthurSchopenhauerrecommendsustotakerefugeinthingslikeart,philosophy,lossofthewilltolive,andtolerancetoward'fellow-sufferers'. FriedrichNietzsche,firstinfluencedbySchopenhauer,developedafterwardquiteanotherattitude,arguingthatthesufferingoflifeisproductive,exaltingthewilltopower,despisingweakcompassionorpity,andrecommendingustoembracewillfullythe'eternalreturn'ofthegreatestsufferings.[citationneeded][8] Philosophyofpainisaphilosophicalspecialitythatfocusesonphysicalpainandis,throughthat,relevanttosufferingingeneral. Religion[edit] Mahaviratorch-bearerofahimsa Sufferingplaysanimportantroleinanumberofreligions,regardingmatterssuchasthefollowing:consolationorrelief;moralconduct(donoharm,helptheafflicted,showcompassion);spiritualadvancementthroughlifehardshipsorthroughself-imposedtrials(mortificationoftheflesh,penance,asceticism);ultimatedestiny(salvation,damnation,hell).Theodicydealswiththeproblemofevil,whichisthedifficultyofreconcilingtheexistenceofanomnipotentandbenevolentgodwiththeexistenceofevil:aquintessentialformofevil,formanypeople,isextremesuffering,especiallyininnocentchildren,orincreaturesdestinedtoaneternityoftorments(seeproblemofhell). The'FourNobleTruths'ofBuddhismareaboutdukkha,atermoftentranslatedassuffering.Theystatethenatureofsuffering,itscause,itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,theNobleEightfoldPath.Buddhismconsidersliberationfromdukkhaandthepracticeofcompassion(karuna)asbasicforleadingaholylifeandattainingnirvana. Hinduismholdsthatsufferingfollowsnaturallyfrompersonalnegativebehaviorsinone'scurrentlifeorinapastlife(seekarmainHinduism).[9]Onemustacceptsufferingasajustconsequenceandasanopportunityforspiritualprogress.Thusthesoulortrueself,whichiseternallyfreeofanysuffering,maycometomanifestitselfintheperson,whothenachievesliberation(moksha).Abstinencefromcausingpainorharmtootherbeings,calledahimsa,isacentraltenetofHinduism,andevenmoresoofanotherIndianreligion,Jainism(seeahimsainJainism). InJudaism,sufferingisoftenseenasapunishmentforsinsandatestofaperson'sfaith,liketheBookofJobillustrates. ForChristianity,redemptivesufferingisthebeliefthathumansuffering,whenacceptedandofferedupinunionwiththePassionofJesus,[10]canremitthejustpunishmentforsinsandallowtogrowintheloveofGod,othersandoneself.[11] InIslam,thefaithfulmustenduresufferingwithhopeandfaith,notresistoraskwhy,acceptitasAllah'swillandsubmittoitasatestoffaith.Allahneverasksmorethancanbeendured.Onemustalsoworktoalleviatethesufferingofothers,aswellasone'sown.Sufferingisalsoseenasablessing.Throughthatgift,thesuffererremembersGodandconnectswithhim.Sufferingexpungesthesinsofhumanbeingsandcleansestheirsoulfortheimmenserewardoftheafterlife,andtheavoidanceofhell.[12] AccordingtotheBahá'íFaith,allsufferingisabriefandtemporarymanifestationofphysicallife,whosesourceisthematerialaspectsofphysicalexistence,andoftenattachmenttothem,whereasonlyjoyexistsinthespiritualworlds.[13] Artsandliterature[edit] LandscapewiththeFallofIcarusbyPieterBruegheltheElder Artisticandliteraryworksoftenengagewithsuffering,sometimesatgreatcosttotheircreatorsorperformers.TheLiterature,Arts,andMedicineDatabaseoffersalistofsuchworksunderthecategoriesart,film,literature,andtheater.Beitinthetragic,comicorothergenres,artandliteratureoffermeanstoalleviate(andperhapsalsoexacerbate)suffering,asarguedforinstanceinHaroldSchweizer'sSufferingandtheremedyofart.[14] ThisBrueghelpaintingisamongthosethatinspiredW.H.Auden'spoemMuséedesBeauxArts: Aboutsufferingtheywereneverwrong, TheOldMasters;howwell,theyunderstood Itshumanposition;howittakesplace Whilesomeoneelseiseatingoropeningawindoworjustwalkingdullyalong; (...) InBreughel'sIcarus,forinstance:howeverythingturnsaway Quiteleisurelyfromthedisaster;(...)[15] Socialsciences[edit] Socialsuffering,accordingtoArthurKleinmanandothers,describes"collectiveandindividualhumansufferingassociatedwithlifeconditionsshapedbypowerfulsocialforces".[16]Suchsufferingisanincreasingconcerninmedicalanthropology,ethnography,massmediaanalysis,andHolocauststudies,saysIainWilkinson,[17]whoisdevelopingasociologyofsuffering.[18] TheEncyclopediaofWorldProblemsandHumanPotentialisaworkbytheUnionofInternationalAssociations.Itsmaindatabasesareaboutworldproblems(56,564profiles),globalstrategiesandsolutions(32,547profiles),humanvalues(3,257profiles),andhumandevelopment(4,817profiles).Itstatesthat"themostfundamentalentrycommontothecorepartsisthatofpain(orsuffering)"and"commontothecorepartsisthelearningdimensionofnewunderstandingorinsightinresponsetosuffering".[19] RalphG.H.Siu,anAmericanauthor,urgedin1988the"creationofanewandvigorousacademicdiscipline,calledpanetics,tobedevotedtothestudyoftheinflictionofsuffering",[20]TheInternationalSocietyforPaneticswasfoundedin1991tostudyanddevelopwaystoreducetheinflictionofhumansufferingbyindividualsactingthroughprofessions,corporations,governments,andothersocialgroups.[21] Ineconomics,thefollowingnotionsrelatenotonlytothematterssuggestedbytheirpositiveappellations,buttothematterofsufferingaswell:Well-beingorQualityoflife,Welfareeconomics,Happinesseconomics,GrossNationalHappiness,GenuineProgressIndicator. Inlaw,"Painandsuffering"isalegaltermthatreferstothementaldistressorphysicalpainenduredbyaplaintiffasaresultofinjuryforwhichtheplaintiffseeksredress.Assessmentsofpainandsufferingarerequiredtobemadeforattributinglegalawards.IntheWesternworldthesearetypicalmadebyjuriesinadiscretionaryfashionandareregardedassubjective,variable,anddifficulttopredict,forinstanceintheUS,[22]UK,[23]Australia,[24]andNewZealand.[25]Seealso,inUSlaw,NegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressandIntentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress. Inmanagementandorganizationstudies,drawingontheworkofEricCassell,sufferinghasbeendefinedasthedistressapersonexperienceswhentheyperceiveathreattoanyaspectoftheircontinuedexistence,whetherphysical,psychological,orsocial.[26]Otherresearchershavenotedthatsufferingresultsfromaninabilitytocontrolactionsthatusuallydefineone'sviewofone'sselfandthatthecharacteristicsofsufferingincludethelossofautonomy,orthelossofvaluedrelationshipsorsenseofself.Sufferingisthereforedeterminednotbythethreatitselfbut,rather,byitsmeaningtotheindividualandthethreattotheirpersonhood.[26] Biology,neurology,psychology[edit] Sufferingandpleasurearerespectivelythenegativeandpositiveaffects,orhedonictones,orvalencesthatpsychologistsoftenidentifyasbasicinouremotionallives.[27]Theevolutionaryroleofphysicalandmentalsuffering,throughnaturalselection,isprimordial:itwarnsofthreats,motivatescoping(fightorflight,escapism),andreinforcesnegativelycertainbehaviors(seepunishment,aversives).Despiteitsinitialdisruptingnature,sufferingcontributestotheorganizationofmeaninginanindividual'sworldandpsyche.Inturn,meaningdetermineshowindividualsorsocietiesexperienceanddealwithsuffering. Neuroimagingshedslightontheseatofsuffering Manybrainstructuresandphysiologicalprocessesareinvolvedinsuffering(particularlytheanteriorinsulaandcingulatecortex,bothimplicatedinnociceptiveandempathicpain).[28]Varioushypothesestrytoaccountfortheexperienceofsuffering.Oneofthese,thepainoverlaptheory[29]takesnote,thankstoneuroimagingstudies,thatthecingulatecortexfiresupwhenthebrainfeelssufferingfromexperimentallyinducedsocialdistress,aswellasphysicalpain.Thetheoryproposesthereforethatphysicalpainandsocialpain(i.e.tworadicallydifferingkindsofsuffering)shareacommonphenomenologicalandneurologicalbasis. AccordingtoDavidPearce’sonlinemanifesto"TheHedonisticImperative,"[30]sufferingistheavoidableresultofDarwinianevolution.Pearcepromotesreplacingthebiologyofsufferingwitharobot-likeresponsetonoxiousstimuli[31]orwithinformation-sensitivegradientsofbliss,[32]throughgeneticengineeringandothertechnicalscientificadvances. Hedonisticpsychology,[33]affectivescience,andaffectiveneurosciencearesomeoftheemergingscientificfieldsthatcouldinthecomingyearsfocustheirattentiononthephenomenonofsuffering. Healthcare[edit] Diseaseandinjurymaycontributetosufferinginhumansandanimals.Forexample,sufferingmaybeafeatureofmentalorphysicalillness[34]suchasborderlinepersonalitydisorder[35][36]andoccasionallyinadvancedcancer.[37]Healthcareaddressesthissufferinginmanyways,insubfieldssuchasmedicine,clinicalpsychology,psychotherapy,alternativemedicine,hygiene,publichealth,andthroughvarioushealthcareproviders. However..."Ifpeoplefeelunhappywhenburdenedbynegativelifeevents,thisisnomentaldisorder,but“healthysuffering” .Itisofgreatimportancenottomedicalizesucheverydayproblems."[38] Healthcareapproachestosuffering,however,remainproblematic.PhysicianandauthorEricCassell,widelycitedonthesubjectofattendingtothesufferingpersonasaprimarygoalofmedicine,hasdefinedsufferingas"thestateofseveredistressassociatedwitheventsthatthreatentheintactnessoftheperson".[39]Cassellwrites:"Theobligationofphysicianstorelievehumansufferingstretchesbacktoantiquity.Despitethisfact,littleattentionisexplicitlygiventotheproblemofsufferinginmedicaleducation,researchorpractice."Mirroringthetraditionalbodyandminddichotomythatunderliesitsteachingandpractice,medicinestronglydistinguishespainfromsuffering,andmostattentiongoestothetreatmentofpain.Nevertheless,physicalpainitselfstilllacksadequateattentionfromthemedicalcommunity,accordingtonumerousreports.[40]Besides,somemedicalfieldslikepalliativecare,painmanagement(orpainmedicine),oncology,orpsychiatry,dosomewhataddresssuffering'assuch'.Inpalliativecare,forinstance,pioneerCicelySaunderscreatedtheconceptof'totalpain'('totalsuffering'saynowthetextbooks),[41]whichencompassesthewholesetofphysicalandmentaldistress,discomfort,symptoms,problems,orneedsthatapatientmayexperiencehurtfully. Mentalillness[edit] GaryGreenberg,inTheBookofWoe,writesthatmentalillnessmightbestbeviewedasmedicalizationorlabeling/namingsuffering(i.e.thatallmentalillnessesmightnotnecessarilybeofdysfunctionorbiological-etiology,butmightbesocialorcultural/societal).[42] Reliefandpreventioninsociety[edit] Sincesufferingissuchauniversalmotivatingexperience,people,whenasked,canrelatetheiractivitiestoitsreliefandprevention.Farmers,forinstance,mayclaimthattheypreventfamine,artistsmaysaythattheytakeourmindsoffourworries,andteachersmayholdthattheyhanddowntoolsforcopingwithlifehazards.Incertainaspectsofcollectivelife,however,sufferingismorereadilyanexplicitconcernbyitself.Suchaspectsmayincludepublichealth,humanrights,humanitarianaid,disasterrelief,philanthropy,economicaid,socialservices,insurance,andanimalwelfare.Tothesecanbeaddedtheaspectsofsecurityandsafety,whichrelatetoprecautionarymeasurestakenbyindividualsorfamilies,tointerventionsbythemilitary,thepolice,thefirefighters,andtonotionsorfieldslikesocialsecurity,environmentalsecurity,andhumansecurity. ThenongovernmentalresearchorganizationCenteronLong-TermRisk,formerlyknownastheFoundationalResearchInstitute,focusesonreducingrisksofastronomicalsuffering(s-risks)fromemergingtechnologies.[43]Anotherorganizationalsofocusedonresearch,theCenteronReducingSuffering,hasasimilarfocus,withastressonclarifyingwhatprioritiesthereshouldbeatapracticalleveltoattainthegoalofreducingintensesufferinginthefuture.[44] Uses[edit] PhilosopherLeonardKatzwrote:"ButNature,aswenowknow,regardsultimatelyonlyfitnessandnotourhappiness(...),anddoesnotscrupletousehate,fear,punishmentandevenwaralongsideaffectioninorderingsocialgroupsandselectingamongthem,justassheusespainaswellaspleasuretogetustofeed,waterandprotectourbodiesandalsoinforgingoursocialbonds."[45] Peoplemakeuseofsufferingforspecificsocialorpersonalpurposesinmanyareasofhumanlife,ascanbeseeninthefollowinginstances: Inarts,literature,orentertainment,peoplemayusesufferingforcreation,forperformance,orforenjoyment.Entertainmentparticularlymakesuseofsufferinginbloodsportsandviolenceinthemedia,includingviolentvideogamesdepictionofsuffering.[46]Amoreorlessgreatamountofsufferingisinvolvedinbodyart.Themostcommonformsofbodyartincludetattooing,bodypiercing,scarification,humanbranding.Anotherformofbodyartisasub-categoryofperformanceart,inwhichforinstancethebodyismutilatedorpushedtoitsphysicallimits. Inbusinessandvariousorganizations,sufferingmaybeusedforconstraininghumansoranimalsintorequiredbehaviors. Inacriminalcontext,peoplemayusesufferingforcoercion,revenge,orpleasure. Ininterpersonalrelationships,especiallyinplaceslikefamilies,schools,orworkplaces,sufferingisusedforvariousmotives,particularlyundertheformofabuseandpunishment.Inanotherfashionrelatedtointerpersonalrelationships,thesick,orvictims,ormalingerers,mayusesufferingmoreorlessvoluntarilytogetprimary,secondary,ortertiarygain. Inlaw,sufferingisusedforpunishment(seepenallaw);victimsmayrefertowhatlegaltextscall"painandsuffering"togetcompensation;lawyersmayuseavictim'ssufferingasanargumentagainsttheaccused;anaccused'sordefendant'ssufferingmaybeanargumentintheirfavor;authoritiesattimesuselightorheavytortureinordertogetinformationoraconfession. Inthenewsmedia,sufferingisoftentherawmaterial.[47] Inpersonalconduct,peoplemayusesufferingforthemselves,inapositiveway.[48]Personalsufferingmaylead,ifbitterness,depression,orspitefulnessisavoided,tocharacter-building,spiritualgrowth,ormoralachievement;[49]realizingtheextentorgravityofsufferingintheworldmaymotivateonetorelieveitandmaygiveaninspiringdirectiontoone'slife.Alternatively,peoplemaymakeself-detrimentaluseofsuffering.Somemaybecaughtincompulsivereenactmentofpainfulfeelingsinordertoprotectthemfromseeingthatthosefeelingshavetheirorigininunmentionablepastexperiences;somemayaddictivelyindulgeindisagreeableemotionslikefear,anger,orjealousy,inordertoenjoypleasantfeelingsofarousalorreleasethatoftenaccompanytheseemotions;somemayengageinactsofself-harmaimedatrelievingotherwiseunbearablestatesofmind. Inpolitics,thereispurposefulinflictionofsufferinginwar,torture,andterrorism;peoplemayusenonphysicalsufferingagainstcompetitorsinnonviolentpowerstruggles;peoplewhoargueforapolicymayputforwardtheneedtorelieve,preventoravengesuffering;individualsorgroupsmayusepastsufferingasapoliticalleverintheirfavor. Inreligion,sufferingisusedespeciallytogrowspiritually,toexpiate,toinspirecompassionandhelp,tofrighten,topunish. Inritesofpassage(seealsohazing,ragging),ritualsthatmakeuseofsufferingarefrequent. Inscience,humansandanimalsaresubjectedonpurposetoaversiveexperiencesforthestudyofsufferingorotherphenomena. Insex,especiallyinacontextofsadismandmasochismorBDSM,individualsmayuseacertainamountofphysicalormentalsuffering(e.g.pain,humiliation). Insports,sufferingmaybeusedtooutperformcompetitorsoroneself;seesportsinjury,andnopain,nogain;seealsobloodsportandviolenceinsportasinstancesofpain-basedentertainment. Seealso[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoHumansuffering. LookupsufferinginWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoSuffering. Topicsrelatedtosuffering Physicalpain-relatedtopics Pain ·Pain(philosophy) ·Psychogenicpain ·Chronicpain ·Paininanimals(Amphibians,Cephalopods,Crustaceans,Fish,Invertebrates) Ethics-relatedtopics Evil ·Problemofevil ·Hell ·Goodandevil:welfaristtheories ·Negativeconsequentialism ·Suffering-focusedethics Compassion-relatedtopics Compassion ·Compassionfatigue ·Pity ·Mercy ·Sympathy ·Empathy Cruelty-relatedtopics Cruelty ·Schadenfreude ·Sadisticpersonalitydisorder ·Abuse ·Physicalabuse ·Psychologicaloremotionalabuse ·Self-harm ·Crueltytoanimals Death-relatedtopics Euthanasia ·Animaleuthanasia ·Suicide Otherrelatedtopics Eradicationofsuffering ·Dukkha ·Weltschmerz ·Negativeaffectivity ·Psychologicalpain ·Amorfati ·Victimology ·Penology ·Pleasure ·Painandpleasure ·Happiness ·Hedonictreadmill ·Sufferingrisks ·Wildanimalsuffering Selectedbibliography[edit] JosephA.Amato.VictimsandValues:AHistoryandaTheoryofSuffering.NewYork:Praeger,1990.ISBN 0-275-93690-2 JamesDavies.TheImportanceofSuffering:thevalueandmeaningofemotionaldiscontent.London:RoutledgeISBN 0-415-66780-1 Casell,E.J.(1991).Thenatureofsufferingandthegoalsofmedicine(pertama ed.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. CynthiaHalpern.Suffering,Politics,Power:aGenealogyinModernPoliticalTheory.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2002.ISBN 0-7914-5103-8 JamieMayerfeld.SufferingandMoralResponsibility.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.ISBN 0-19-515495-9 ThomasMetzinger.Suffering.InKurtAlmqvist&AndersHaag(2017)[eds.],TheReturnofConsciousness.Stockholm:AxelandMargaretAx:sonJohnsonFoundation.ISBN 978-91-89672-90-1 DavidB.Morris.TheCultureofPain.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2002.ISBN 0-520-08276-1 ElaineScarry.TheBodyinPain:TheMakingandUnmakingoftheWorld.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1987. ISBN 0-19-504996-9 Spelman,E.V.(1995).Fruitsofsorrowframingourattentiontosuffering.Boston,Mass.,USA:BeaconPress. RonaldAnderson.WorldSufferingandQualityofLife,SocialIndicatorsResearchSeries,Volume56,2015.ISBN 978-94-017-9669-9;Also:HumanSufferingandQualityofLife,SpringerBriefsinWell-BeingandQualityofLifeResearch,2014.ISBN 978-94-007-7668-5 References[edit] ^See'Terminology'.Seealsotheentry'Pleasure'inStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,whichbeginswiththisparagraph:"Pleasure,intheinclusiveusagesmostimportantinmoralpsychology,ethicaltheory,andthestudiesofmind,includesalljoyandgladness –allourfeelinggood,orhappy.Itisoftencontrastedwithsimilarlyinclusivepainorsuffering,whichissimilarlythoughtofasincludingallourfeelingbad."Itshouldbementionedthatmostencyclopedias,liketheonementionedaboveandBritannica,donothaveanarticleaboutsufferinganddescribepaininthephysicalsenseonly. ^Forinstance,WayneHudsoninHistoricizingSuffering,Chapter14ofPerspectivesonHumanSuffering(JeffMalpasandNorelleLickiss,editors,Springer,2012) :"Accordingtothestandardaccountsufferingisauniversalhumanexperiencedescribedasanegativebasicfeelingoremotionthatinvolvesasubjectivecharacterofunpleasantness,aversion,harmorthreatofharmtobodyormind(Spelman1997;Cassell1991)." ^Examplesofphysicalsuffering:painofvarioustypes,excessiveheat,excessivecold,itching,hunger,thirst,nausea,airhunger,sleepdeprivation."IASPPainTerminology".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember26,2008.RetrievedSeptember11,2008."UAB–SchoolofMedicine–CenterforPalliativeandSupportiveCare".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2007-10-28.Retrieved2008-09-11.OtherexamplesaregivenbyL.W.Sumner,onp.103ofWelfare,Happiness,andEthics:"Thinkforamomentofthemanyphysicalsymptomswhich,whenpersistent,canmakeourlivesmiserable:nausea,hiccups,sneezing,dizziness,disorientation,lossofbalance,itching,'pinsandneedles','restlesslegs',tics,twitching,fatigue,difficultyinbreathing,andsoon." ^Mentalsufferingcanalsobecalledpsychologicaloremotional(seePsychologicalpain).Examplesofmentalsuffering:depression(mood)/hopelessness,grief,sadness/loneliness/heartbreak,disgust,irritation,anger,jealousy,envy,cravingoryearning,frustration,anguish,angst,fear,anxiety/panic,shame/guilt,regret,embarrassment/humiliation,restlessness. ^Eggerman,PanterBrick,Mark,Catherine(2010)."Suffering,hope,andentrapment:ResilienceandculturalvaluesinAfghanistan".SocialScience&Medicine.71(1):71–83.doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.PMC 3125115.PMID 20452111. ^DonaldD.Price,CentralNeuralMechanismsthatInterrelateSensoryandAffectiveDimensionsofPainArchived2009-08-18attheWaybackMachine,‘’MolecularInterventions’’2:392–403(2002). ^CraneBrinton,articleHumanitarianism,EncyclopaediaoftheSocialSciences,1937 ^Nietzsche,Friedrich(2006).DelCaro,Adrian;Pippin,RobertB.(eds.).ThusSpokeZarathustra,ABookforAllandNone.TranslatedbyDelCaro,Adrian.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 176–179.ISBN 978-0-511-21975-7. ^Kane,P.V.HistoryoftheDharmaśāstrasVol.4p.38 ^R.Peteet,M.D.,John(2001)."PuttingSufferingIntoPerspective".TheJournalofPsychotherapyPracticeandResearch.10(3):187–192.PMC 3330651.PMID 11402082. ^OntheChristianMeaningofHumanSufferingArchivedSeptember30,2005,attheWaybackMachine. ^SufferinganIslamicpointofview:"SufferingsareDivineGrace".2015-03-14.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2016-10-01.Retrieved2016-08-01. ^Inthewordsof`Abdu'l-Bahá:"Alltheseexamplesaretoshowyouthatthetrialswhichbesetoureverystep,alloursorrow,pain,shameandgrief,arebornintheworldofmatter;whereasthespiritualKingdomnevercausessadness.AmanlivingwithhisthoughtsinthisKingdomknowsperpetualjoy."ParisTalks,p.110. ^Schweizer,Harold(1997).Sufferingandtheremedyofart.Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.ISBN 0-7914-3264-5. ^W.H.Auden,MuséedesBeauxArts(1938)inCollectedPoemsp.179(E.Mendelsoned.1976) ^Socialsuffering.Daedalus.ProcAmerAcadArtsSciences1996;125(1). ^IainWilkinson,Suffering –ASociologicalIntroduction,PolityPress,2005 ^"SchoolofSocialPolicy,SociologyandSocialResearch".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember30,2007.RetrievedJuly31,2007. ^"Encyclopediaofworldproblemsandhumanpotentialproject–commentaries|UnionofInternationalAssociations(UIA)".Uia.be.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-07-17.Retrieved2013-01-20. ^RalphG.H.Siu,Panetics−TheStudyoftheInflictionofSuffering,JournalofHumanisticPsychology,Vol.28No.3,Summer1988.SeealsoRalphG.H.Siu,PaneticsTrilogy,Washington:TheInternationalSocietyforPanetics,1994,ISBN 1-884437-00-1. ^"ISP".Panetics.info.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2013-07-28.Retrieved2013-01-20. ^RonenAvraham."PuttingaPriceonPain-And-SufferingDamages:ACritiqueoftheCurrentApproachesandaPreliminaryPeoposalforChange"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJuly10,2012.RetrievedFebruary17,2013. ^Personalinjuries–CitizensAdviceScotlandArchived2013-04-20attheWaybackMachine ^Australia ^"Archivedcopy"(PDF).Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon2013-07-21.Retrieved2013-02-17.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link) ^abGill,MJ.(2019)."Thesignificanceofsufferinginorganizations:Understandingvariationinworkers'responsestomultiplemodesofcontrol".AcademyofManagementReview.44(2):377–404.doi:10.5465/amr.2016.0378.S2CID 149501870. ^GiovannaColombetti,AppraisingValenceArchivedSeptember25,2007,attheWaybackMachine,JournalofConsciousnessStudies12(8-10),pp.106–129(2005). ^Zaki,Jamil;Wager,TorD.;Singer,Tania;Keysers,Christian;Gazzola,Valeria(April2016)."TheAnatomyofSuffering:UnderstandingtheRelationshipbetweenNociceptiveandEmpathicPain".TrendsinCognitiveSciences.20(4):249–259.doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.02.003.PMC 5521249.PMID 26944221. ^"PainOverlapTheory"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onFebruary29,2012.Retrieved2013-01-20. ^TheHedonisticImperative:TableOfContentsArchived2013-07-29attheWaybackMachine ^SeeVanityFairinterviewwithPearceArchived2007-05-05attheWaybackMachine ^SeeLifeintheFarNorth–Aninformation-theoreticperspectiveonHeavenArchived2016-03-14attheWaybackMachine ^Kahneman,D.,E.DienerandN.Schwartz(eds.)Well-being:TheFoundationsofHedonisticPsychology,RussellSageFoundation,1999 ^S,Fleischman(1999)."JournalofMedicalHumanities".KluwerAcademicPublishers-PlenumPublishers.20:3:3–32.doi:10.1023/A:1022918132461.S2CID 141747255. ^Fertuck,EA.;Jekal,A.;Song,I.;Wyman,B.;Morris,MC.;Wilson,ST.;Brodsky,BS.;Stanley,B.(December2009)."Enhanced'ReadingtheMindintheEyes'inborderlinepersonalitydisordercomparedtohealthycontrols".PsychologicalMedicine.39(12):1979–1988.doi:10.1017/S003329170900600X.PMC 3427787.PMID 19460187. ^DiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders(DSM-IV)(4th ed.).Washington,DC:AmericanPsychiatricAssociation.1994.ISBN 978-0-89-042061-4. ^Wilson,KG.;Chochinov,HM.;McPherson,CJ.;LeMay,K.;Allard,P.;Chary,S.;Gagnon,PR.;Macmillan,K.;DeLuca,M.;O'Shea,F.;Kuhl,D.;Fainsinger,RL.(May1,2007)."SufferingWithAdvancedCancer".JournalofClinicalOncology.25(13):1691–1697.doi:10.1200/JCO.2006.08.6801.PMID 17470861. ^M.,Linden(2020)."Euthymicsufferingandwisdompsychology.WorldPsychiatry".WorldPsychiatry.19(1):55–56.doi:10.1002/wps.20718.PMC 6953571.PMID 31922666. ^EricJCassell,TheNatureofSufferingandtheGoalsofMedicine,2004. ^SeeforinstancetheNationalPainCarePolicyActof2007ArchivedMay15,2008,attheWaybackMachine ^SeeExistentialpain –anentity,aprovocation,orachallenge?inJournalofPainSymptomandManagement,Volume27,Issue3,pp.241–250(March2004) ^Greenberg,Gary(2013).TheBookofWoe.Plume.p. 15.ISBN 978-0399158537. ^"AboutUs".CenteronLong-TermRisk.RetrievedMay17,2020.Wecurrentlyfocusoneffortstoreducetheworstrisksofastronomicalsuffering(s-risks)fromemergingtechnologies,withafocusontransformativeartificialintelligence. ^CenteronReducingSuffering(2019)"Aboutus". ^Katz,LeonardDavid(2000).Evolutionaryoriginsofmorality:cross-disciplinaryperspectives.Devon:ImprintAcademic.p. xv.ISBN 0-907845-07-X. ^Carlsson,Ulla."ChildrenandMediaViolence".AltruisticWorldOnlineLibrary.Retrieved29November2018. ^SeeforinstanceFranciscoIbáñez-Carrasco,EricaR.Meiners(eds.);SuzanneDeCastell(foreword)(2004).Publicacts:disruptivereadingsonmakingcurriculumpublic.NewYork:RoutledgeFalmer.p. 6.ISBN 0-415-94839-8.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link):"Inoureraofinformationsaturation,mediausespain,suffering,anddesiretodistractandtocreatespectacularroadkilloutofpoverty,deviancy,andviolence(...)".SeealsoforinstanceArthurKleinmanabouttheusesandabusesofimagesofsufferinginthemedia. ^SeeforinstanceViktorFrankl'sMan'sSearchforMeaning ^Fukuyama,Francis(2002).Ourposthumanfuture:consequencesofthebiotechnologyrevolution.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux.ISBN 0-374-23643-7. vteEmotions(list)Emotions Acceptance Admiration Adoration Aesthetic Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Boredom Calmness Compassion Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Cruelty Curiosity Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Embarrassment vicarious Empathy Emptiness Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Faith Fear Flow Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hygge Hysteria Indulgence Infatuation Insecurity Inspiration Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Love limerence Lust Mononoaware Neglect Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity self-pity Pleasure Pride grandiosity hubris insult vanity Rage Regret Rejection Relief Remorse Resentment Sadness melancholy Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Socialconnection Sorrow Spite Stress chronic Suffering Surprise Sympathy Trust Wonder senseofwonder Worry Worldviews Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz Related Affect consciousness ineducation measures inpsychology Affective computing forecasting neuroscience science spectrum Affectivity positive negative Appealtoemotion Emotion andart andmemory andmusic andsex classification evolution expressed functionalaccounts group homeostatic inanimals perception recognition inconversation regulation interpersonal work Emotional aperture bias blackmail competence conflict contagion detachment dysregulation eating exhaustion expression andgender intelligence andbullying intimacy isolation lability labor lateralization literacy prosody reasoning responsivity security symbiosis well-being Emotionality bounded Emotions andculture history indecision-making intheworkplace invirtualcommunication moral self-conscious social socialsharing sociology Feeling Groupaffectivetone Interactionsbetweentheemotionalandexecutivebrainsystems Jealousyinart Meta-emotion Pathognomy Pathos Socialemotionaldevelopment Stoicpassions Theory affect appraisal constructedemotion discreteemotion somaticmarker Italicsindicateemotionnamesinforeignlanguages vtePainByregion/systemHeadandneck Eyestrain Headache Neck Odynophagia(swallowing) Toothache Respiratorysystem Sorethroat Pleurodynia Musculoskeletal Arthralgia(joint) Bonepain Myalgia(muscle) Acute Delayed-onset Neurologic Neuralgia Painasymbolia Paindisorder Paroxysmalextremepaindisorder Allodynia Chronicpain Hyperalgesia Hypoalgesia Hyperpathia Phantompain Referredpain Congenitalinsensitivitytopain congenitalinsensitivitytopainwithanhidrosis congenitalinsensitivitytopainwithpartialanhidrosis Other Pelvicpain Proctalgia Back Lowbackpain Measurementandtesting Painscale Coldpressortest Dolorimeter Grimacescale Hotplatetest Tailflicktest Visualanaloguescale Pathophysiology Nociception Anterolateralsystem Posteromarginalnucleus SubstanceP Management Analgesia Anesthesia Cordotomy Paineradication Relatedconcepts Painthreshold Paintolerance Suffering SOCRATES Philosophyofpain Cancerpain Drug-seekingbehavior vteEthicsNormativeethics Consequentialism Utilitarianism Deontology Kantianethics Ethicsofcare Existentialistethics Particularism Pragmaticethics Roleethics Virtueethics Eudaimonia Appliedethics Animalethics Bioethics Businessethics Discourseethics Engineeringethics Environmentalethics Legalethics Machineethics Mediaethics Medicalethics Nursingethics Professionalethics Sexualethics Ethicsofartificialintelligence Ethicsofeatingmeat Ethicsoftechnology Ethicsofterraforming Ethicsofuncertainsentience Meta-ethics Cognitivism Moralrealism Ethicalnaturalism Ethicalnon-naturalism Ethicalsubjectivism Idealobservertheory Divinecommandtheory Errortheory Non-cognitivism Emotivism Expressivism Quasi-realism Universalprescriptivism Moraluniversalism Valuemonism–Valuepluralism Moralconstructivism Moralrelativism Moralnihilism Moralrationalism Ethicalintuitionism Moralskepticism Concepts(index) Autonomy Axiology Conscience Consent Equality Freewill Goodandevil Good Evil Happiness Ideal Immorality Justice Liberty Morality Norm Freedom SufferingorPain Stewardship Sympathy Trust Value Virtue Wrong Ethicistphilosophers Laozi Socrates Plato Aristotle Diogenes Valluvar Cicero Confucius AugustineofHippo Mencius Mozi Xunzi ThomasAquinas BaruchSpinoza DavidHume ImmanuelKant GeorgW.F.Hegel ArthurSchopenhauer JeremyBentham JohnStuartMill SørenKierkegaard HenrySidgwick FriedrichNietzsche G.E.Moore KarlBarth PaulTillich DietrichBonhoeffer PhilippaFoot JohnRawls JohnDewey BernardWilliams J.L.Mackie G.E.M.Anscombe WilliamFrankena AlasdairMacIntyre R.M.Hare PeterSinger DerekParfit ThomasNagel RobertMerrihewAdams CharlesTaylor JoxeAzurmendi ChristineKorsgaard MarthaNussbaum Relatedarticles Casuistry Christianethics Descriptiveethics Ethicsinreligion Evolutionaryethics Feministethics Historyofethics Ideology Islamicethics Jewishethics Moralpsychology Philosophyoflaw Politicalphilosophy Populationethics Socialphilosophy Suffering-focusedethics Category AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Other İslâmAnsiklopedisi 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