Full article: Future steps in visual working memory research

Visual working memory (vWM) is the cognitive function that enables the temporary maintenance of visual information relevant for a current or ... SkiptoMainContent Searchin: ThisJournal Anywhere Advancedsearch VisualCognition Volume28,2020-Issue5-8:SpecialIssue:Currentperspectivesonvisualworkingmemory Submitanarticle Journalhomepage Freeaccess 1,803 Views 1 CrossRefcitationstodate 0 Altmetric Listen Editorial FuturestepsinvisualworkingmemoryresearchChristianN.L.OliversaFacultyofBehaviouralandMovementSciences,InstituteofBrainandBehaviorAmsterdam,ExperimentalandAppliedPsychology,VrijeUniversiteit,Amsterdam,NetherlandsCorrespondencec.n.l.olivers@vu.nlViewfurtherauthorinformation&StefanVanderStigchelbExperimentalPsychology,HelmholtzInstitute,UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,NetherlandsViewfurtherauthorinformation Pages325-329 Publishedonline:30Oct2020 Downloadcitation https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2020.1833478 CrossMark InthisarticleInthisarticleFromthepasttothefutureMemory-for-actionDifferentfunctionalstatesAdditionalinformationReferences Editorial Futurestepsinvisualworkingmemoryresearch FullArticle Figures&data References Citations 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Visualworkingmemory(vWM)isthecognitivefunctionthatenablesthetemporarymaintenanceofvisualinformationrelevantforacurrentorpendingtask.Forexample,whenweassembleapieceofflat-packfurnitureweoftenfirstlookatthemanualtotakeinanimageofthepartweneed,afterwhichwelookforthesamepartinthe(hopefullycomplete)package.Bydefinition,vWMishighlyflexible,asitcanrepresentspatial,feature,andobjectinformation–representationsthatcanbeupdated,replaced,recombinedorforgottenaccordingtotaskdemands.Forexample,afterhavingassembledonepartoffurniture,youforgetaboutitandmoveontothenextstep.Thus,vWMisacorecomponentofwhatmakeshumancognitionsoadaptiveandflexibleincomplexenvironments.Moreover,vWMresearch(andrelatedresearchintovisualimagery)providesawindowonwhatwecognitionscientistsarguablyfindthemostexciting:Aspurely“mental”representations,somehowactivatedandmanipulated“online,”visualmemorandaprovidetheepitomeofarichanddynamicinternal,cognitiveworld.Asamemoryofthepresent,onecouldarguethatthecontentofvWMreflectswhatiscurrentlyinthemind'seye,eithersampledfromtheexternalenvironment,maintainedforlateruse,imagined,orretrievedfromlong-termmemory.Finally,inanincreasinglymorevisuallydrivenworld,itisimportanttofullyunderstandourvisualcapacities,inordertooptimallydesignthevisualenvironment.Perhapsnotsurprisinglythen,thepasttwodecadeshavewitnessedanextensivegrowthofvWMstudies,asisshowninFigure1,withcurrentlyover200publicationsayearwithvisualworkingmemoryorvisualshort-termmemorymentionedintitleorabstract(source:Pubmed.gov,September1,2020).Thesepublicationscontainlivelydebatesaboutthefunction,content,control,andcapacityofvisualworkingmemory,aswellasitsunderlyingneuralarchitecture.ResearchonvWMhasclearlycrossedthebordersbetweendifferentdisciplines,attractingresearchersfromawidevarietyofbackgrounds,includingperception,attention,consciousness,actionandmemory.Thoughperhapstooearlytotell,thesamegraphalsosuggeststhatthegrowthhasbeenslowingoverthemostrecentyears,whichisasignofamaturingfield,butprobablyalsoafieldthatisatacrossroads,lookingfornewdirections.Itisthismixofexcitementandthesenseofafieldatacrossroadsthatinspiredustocompilethisspecialissue,whichcontainsaselectionofwhatmaybebestdescribedasopinionatedreviewsandexperimentalexplorationsonwherethefieldisandwhereitisoroughttobegoing.ThisselectiongrewoutofaworkshoponthesametopicheldattheRoyalDutchAcademyofSciences(KNAW)inAmsterdam,June27–28,2020,inwhichasuperbrangeofexpertsonvWMcametogether.FuturestepsinvisualworkingmemoryresearchAllauthorsChristianN.L.Olivers&StefanVanderStigchelhttps://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2020.1833478Publishedonline:30October2020Figure1.NumberofpublicationsperyearasindexedinPubmedwitheither“visualworkingmemory”or“visualshort-termmemory”inthetitleorabstract.Source:Pubmed.gov(September1,2020).DisplayfullsizeFigure1.NumberofpublicationsperyearasindexedinPubmedwitheither“visualworkingmemory”or“visualshort-termmemory”inthetitleorabstract.Source:Pubmed.gov(September1,2020).Andthecontributionsdorevealanumberofcleartrends,aswellasanumberofcentralcurrentissuesthatstillawaitresolution.Herewepointtheseoutand,whereopportune,brieflyaddourowntakeonit.FromthepasttothefutureTheclearestshiftinperspectivethatiscurrentlyemergingisfromseeingvWMasamemoryoftowardsregardingitasamemoryfor.Thefirstdecadeofthiscenturysawanexplosionofstudiesinterestedinthenumberandfidelityofitemsthatcouldberetained,usingpredominantlydelayedmatch-to-sampleorcontinuousrecalltasks(seee.g.Luck&Vogel,2013,forareview).WhilethisendeavourhasgeneratedawealthofknowledgeonwhatvWMismadeof,itleftthequestionwhatitismadefor.TheseconddecadehasthereforeseenagradualbutundeniableshifttowardsafocusonthefunctionaluseofvWMbeyondmerelyrememberingthepast(e.g.Myersetal.,2017;Nobre&Stokes,2019;Oliversetal.,2011).Thecurrentspecialissuereflectsthisinanumberofways.Stillonthesensorysideofthings,onepurposethatvWMisthoughttoserveistoactivelybiasattention.OrtandOlivers(2020)focusonthecapacityofvWMwhenvWMcontentisusedtosearchformultiplepotentialtargetsinvisualsearchdisplays,reviewingtheevidencethatmemoryforsearchmayhaveadifferentcapacitythanmemoryofpastvisualinformation.Bocincovaetal.(2020)toofocusonvWMforthepurposeofvisualsearch,butfromamodellingperspective,showingthatan“offtheshelf”modelofvWM(Manoharetal.,2019)readilygeneratesbiasesthatmimicattentionalguidanceeffectsinvisualsearch.ButvWMmayalsoplayacentralroleinbiasingattentionawayfromdistractinginformationduringencoding,asisarguedbyLiesefeldetal.(2020).ThesestudiesprovideexamplesofhowdifferentresearchfieldscometogetherinthestudyofvWMfunction.Memory-for-actionInwhatisprobablythestrongestcurrentdevelopmentinvWMresearch,anumberofreviewsfurtherextendtheperspectiveofwhatvWMisfor,byfocusingontherelationshiptoaction(vanEde,2020;Heueretal.,2020;VanderStigchel,2020;seealsoOlivers&Roelfsema,2020;VanderStigchel&Hollingworth,2018).Specifically,Heueretal.reviewevidencethatactionautomaticallydrivesselectionofassociatedinformationwithinvWM.Forexample,programminganeyemovementtowardsacertainlocationimprovesmemoryofanobjectassociatedwiththatlocation,whileprogrammingdifferenthandmovements(graspingversuspointing)differentiallyaffectsmemoryfordifferentfeatures,notablyorientationandcolour.Astheauthorspointout,animportantquestionforfutureresearchistowhatextentsuchaction-basedselectiondiffersfromotherdriversofselection(i.e.whetheractionisspecial),suchasstandardretrospectivecueswhichareofasensorynature(Gazzaley&Nobre,2012;Souza&Oberauer,2016).Arguably,action-basedmemorybenefitsmayreflectatwo-stepmechanism,wherefirsttheactiongoaltellsthesystemwhichobjectorlocationisrelevant,afterwhichasensory-basedattentionmechanismenhancesthatinformation.Conversely,onecouldarguethatevenstandardretro-cueinginvolvesactionselection(Olivers&Roelfsema,2020).WeagreewithHeueretal.thattodisentanglethese,andanumberofotherimportantissuesrequirecleverexperimentingandprobablysophisticatedneurophysiologicalmethods.AdditionalfunctionallinksbetweenvWMandactionarediscussedbyvanEde(2020),whodescribesevidencehowactionplaysaroleintherecruitmentofvisualmemories,howitchangesthequalityofthosememories,andhowthosememoriesservetoovercomeaction-inducedchangesinsensoryinput.Moreover,morepreciseactionmeasuressuchasmicrosaccadeshaverecentlyproventoprovideausefultoolforreadingoutthequalityandstatusofmnemonicrepresentations(deVriesetal.,2018;vanEdeetal.,2019;vanLoonetal.,2017).Inourview,thebiggestcurrentchallengethatemergesfromthisishowthesebidirectionallinksbetweensensoryandmotorrepresentationsareimplementedmechanistically(Kruijneetal.,2020).VanderStigchel(2020)pointsoutyetanotherperspectiveontheroleofactioninvWM.Action,bydefinition,enablesthecognitivesystemtointeractwithitsenvironment,andthusofferstheuniqueopportunitytousethatenvironmentformemorypurposes.Unlikeinthetypicallaboratoryexperiment,visualobjectsintherealworldtendstostayquiteconstantandstable,whileweourselvestendtomovearound.Ratherthanpreciselyandcontinuouslytryingtoholdontothevisualfeaturesofanobject,thesystemcouldstorethegoalofmovingbacktothelocationoftheobjecttosimplysampleitagain.Inotherwords,actionsallowustousetheworldasanoutsidememory.ThiswouldalsoprovidevWMwithanelegantwayarounditscapacitylimitations.Whilethisideahasbeenaroundforagoodwhile(cf.O’Regan,1992),stillverylittleisknownabouthowthebraindecidesbetweenwhentotaketheefforttorecruitworkingmemoryandwhentoleaveinformationintheexternalworld.DifferentfunctionalstatesLastbutnotleast,differentfunctionalpurposeseitherimplydifferentrepresentationalstates,ordifferentoperationsappliedtothesamerepresentationalstate(causingdifferentrepresentationalstatesfurtherdownstream).AsStokesetal.(2020)review,thelastdecadehasseenagooddealofevidenceforafunctionally‘active’state,adoptedbymemoryitemsusedforacurrentorimminenttask,andafunctionally‘latent’state,adoptedbyitemsrememberedforafuture,prospectivetask.Eitherimplicitlyorexplicitly,researchershaveassociatedthesestateswithrespectivelyactiveandsustainedfiringversusactivity-silentplasticity-basedmechanisms.ButasStokesetal.,rightlypointout,thisone-to-onerelationshipisnotnecessarilythecase.Therearemultiplewaysofrecodingortransformingmemoriesineitherfiringorplasticitypatterns.Thereisthustheriskofconfusingquestionsaboutthefunctionalroleinbehaviourwithquestionsabouttheunderlyingbiologicalcorrelateofthoserepresentations.Weaddtothisanotherimportantunresolvedissue,namelyhowmemoriesarebeingtransformed,onthefly,accordingtotaskdemands.Whichmechanismscanturnfunctionallyactiveintofunctionallylatentmemories,orturnneurophysiologicallyactiveintoneurophysiologicalsilentmemories,andviceversa,atthescaleofsecondsorless?Onewayofchangingtherepresentationalstateofamemoryisbyadoptingadifferentbrainregion.ThisisadvocatedbyXu(2020,seealsoChristopheletal.,2018).XuarguesagainstsensoryrecruitmentasthenecessarymechanismofvWMmaintenance.Accordingtothesensoryrecruitmentaccount,vWMmakesatleasttosomeextentuseofthesamerepresentations,andthereforethesamebrainareasasvisualperception.CentralevidenceforthishypothesiscomesfromstudiesshowingthatvWMcontentcanbereconstructedfromvisualcorticalareasduringthedelayperiod(e.g.Harrison&Tong,2009).However,Xuarguesthatwhilevisualcortexmaybeuseful,itcannotbenecessaryforsuccessfulvWMmaintenance,sinceobjectscanalsobesuccessfullyrememberedwithoutvisualcorticalinvolvement.Themainevidenceforthiscomesfromexperimentsinwhichirrelevant,distractingstimuliwereshownduringthememorydelayperiod(Bettencourt&Xu,2016).ThisseverelydisrupteddecodingofvWMcontentfromoccipitalcortex,butnotsomuchperformance.Moreover,vWMcontentcouldbesuccessfullydecodedfromposteriorparietalcortexduringdistraction.Xuthusarguesthatposteriorparietalcortexmaybethemorecrucialsiteforstablystoringvisualmemoriesfortheshortterm.AlthoughmorerecentevidencehasemergedthatvWMcontentcanbesuccessfullydecodedfromoccipitalareasevenunderdistractingstimulation(Rademakeretal.,2019),Xuarguesthatthisdoesnotnecessarilydemonstratethatsuchoccipitalareasfunctionallycontributetothememory.InterestinglyPostleandYu(2020)argueforwhatappearstobequitetheopposite.TheywarnthatbeingabletodecodethecontentofvWMfromposteriorparietalcortex(orfrontalcortexforthatmatter)doesnotnecessarilymeanthatthoseareasactuallyrepresentvWMcontent.Rather,theyargue,theseareascouldwellbeinvolvedincontroloperations(commensuratethefrontoparietalcontrolnetwork'sclassicrole),butthatthespecificparametersoftheseoperationsdependonthestimulus.PostleandYuthenmoreorlessexplicitlyassumethatsensorycortex(theymentionoccipitalandtemporalcortex)containstherealvWMcontent.Althoughthisassumptionmakessense,onecouldarguethatPostleandYufallintheirowntrap:Ifsuccessfuldecodingofcontentfromfrontoparietalnetworksreflectscontrolmechanisms,thesamemightthenholdforsensoryareas.Forexample,suchdecodingmayreflectwhereonastimulusobserversattend,covertly,orevenovertly(cf.Mostertetal.,2018).Inanycase,itisclearthenthatwhereandhowvWMrepresentationsaremaintainedbythebrainisfarfromresolvedandstilldeservesagooddealoffurtherresearch.Akeyissueherewillbetogetabettergrasponwhatisactuallydecodedfromneuralsignalsusingmultivariateanalyses.WeconcludethatthefieldofvWMresearchisstillasdynamicasthephenomenonitisinvestigating.Perhapsthetake-homemessageisthatourtheoriesshouldreflectthatdynamicnature,asithasbecomeclearthatone-dimensionaltheoriesonthearchitectureofvWMwillnotsuffice.Inourview,thecurrentspecialissueclearlyidentifiesthemajorresearchquestionsfortheyearstocome,aswellasthedirectionstotake.AdditionalinformationFundingThisworkwassupportedbytheNetherlandsOrganizationforScientificResearch(NWO-Vicigrant453-16-002toCNLO)andtheEuropeanResearchCouncil(ERC)(grantagreementNo863732withSVdS). 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