Dragon - Wikipedia

A dragon is a reptile-like legendary creature that appears in the folklore of many cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through ... Dragon FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Legendarylargeserpentinefolklore Thisarticleisaboutthelegendarycreature,nottobeconfusedwiththeDragonlizards,Komododragons,Draconian,DraconesorDragoon.ForotherusesseeDragon(disambiguation). Illustrationofawinged,fire-breathingdragonbyFriedrichJustinBertuchfrom1806 Qing-eracarvedimperialChinesedragonsatNine-DragonWall,BeihaiPark,Beijing Dragon-shapedbowsonshipsinYstad,SwedenresemblingVikinglongships Adragonisareptile-likelegendarycreaturethatappearsinthefolkloreofmanyculturesworldwide.Beliefsaboutdragonsvaryconsiderablythroughregions,butdragonsinwesternculturessincetheHighMiddleAgeshaveoftenbeendepictedaswinged,horned,four-legged,andcapableofbreathingfire.Dragonsineasternculturesareusuallydepictedaswingless,four-legged,serpentinecreatureswithabove-averageintelligence.Commonalitiesbetweendragons'traitsareoftenahybridizationoffeline,avian,andreptilianfeatures.Scholarsbelievehugeextinctormigratingcrocodilesbeartheclosestresemblance,especiallywhenencounteredinforestedorswampyareas,andaremostlikelythetemplateofmodernOrientaldragonimagery.[1][2] Contents 1Etymology 2Mythorigins 3Egyptianfolklore 3.1Egypt 4Asianfolklore 4.1EastAsia 4.1.1China 4.1.2Korea 4.1.3Japan 4.2SouthAsia 4.2.1India 4.3SoutheastAsia 4.3.1Vietnam 4.4WestAsia 4.4.1Ancient 4.4.1.1Mesopotamia 4.4.1.2Levant 4.4.2AncientandPost-classical 4.4.3Iran/Persia 5Europeanfolklore 5.1Proto-Indo-European 5.2AncientGreekandRoman 5.3Post-classicalGermanic 5.4Post-classicalWestern 5.5Post-classicalEastern 6Moderndepictions 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 9.1Bibliography 10Externallinks Etymology[edit] AnearlyappearanceoftheOldEnglishworddracaninBeowulf[3] TheworddragonenteredtheEnglishlanguageintheearly13thcenturyfromOldFrenchdragon,whichinturncomesfromLatin:draconem(nominativedraco)meaning"hugeserpent,dragon",fromAncientGreekδράκων,drákōn(genitiveδράκοντος,drákontos)"serpent,giantseafish".[4][5]TheGreekandLatintermreferredtoanygreatserpent,notnecessarilymythological.[6]TheGreekwordδράκωνismostlikelyderivedfromtheGreekverbδέρκομαι(dérkomai)meaning"Isee",theaoristformofwhichisἔδρακον(édrakon).[5]Thisisthoughttohavereferredtosomethingwitha"deadlyglance,"[7]orunusuallybright[8]or"sharp"[9][10]eyes,orbecauseasnake'seyesappeartobealwaysopen;eacheyeactuallyseesthroughabigtransparentscaleinitseyelids,whicharepermanentlyshut.TheGreekwordprobablyderivesfromanIndo-Europeanbase*derḱ-meaning"tosee";theSanskritrootदृश्(dr̥ś-)alsomeans"tosee".[11] Mythorigins[edit] SeveralbonespurportedtobelongtotheWawelDragonhangoutsideofWawelCathedral,butactuallybelongtoaPleistocenemammal. Draconiccreaturesappearinvirtuallyallculturesaroundtheglobe[12]andtheearliestattestedreportsofdraconiccreaturesresemblegiantsnakes.DraconiccreaturesarefirstdescribedinthemythologiesoftheancientNearEastandappearinancientMesopotamianartandliterature.Storiesaboutstorm-godsslayinggiantserpentsoccurthroughoutnearlyallIndo-EuropeanandNearEasternmythologies.FamousprototypicaldraconiccreaturesincludethemušḫuššuofancientMesopotamia;ApepinEgyptianmythology;VṛtraintheRigveda;theLeviathanintheHebrewBible;Grand'GouleinthePoitouregioninFrance;Python,Ladon,Wyvern,KulshedrainAlbanianMythologyandtheLernaeanHydrainGreekmythology;Jörmungandr,Níðhöggr,andFafnirinNorsemythology;andthedragonfromBeowulf. Nonetheless,scholarsdisputewheretheideaofadragonoriginatesfrom[13]andawidevarietyofhypotheseshavebeenproposed.[13] InhisbookAnInstinctforDragons(2000),DavidE.Jones(anthropologist)suggestsahypothesisthathumans,likemonkeys,haveinheritedinstinctivereactionstosnakes,largecats,andbirdsofprey.[14]Hecitesastudywhichfoundthatapproximately39peopleinahundredareafraidofsnakes[15]andnotesthatfearofsnakesisespeciallyprominentinchildren,eveninareaswheresnakesarerare.[15]Theearliestattesteddragonsallresemblesnakesorhavesnakelikeattributes.[16]Jonesthereforeconcludesthatdragonsappearinnearlyallculturesbecausehumanshaveaninnatefearofsnakesandotheranimalsthatweremajorpredatorsofhumans'primateancestors.[17]Dragonsareusuallysaidtoresidein"dankcaves,deeppools,wildmountainreaches,seabottoms,hauntedforests",allplaceswhichwouldhavebeenfraughtwithdangerforearlyhumanancestors.[18] InherbookTheFirstFossilHunters:Dinosaurs,Mammoths,andMythinGreekandRomanTimes(2000),AdrienneMayorarguesthatsomestoriesofdragonsmayhavebeeninspiredbyancientdiscoveriesoffossilsbelongingtodinosaursandotherprehistoricanimals.[19]ShearguesthatthedragonloreofnorthernIndiamayhavebeeninspiredby"observationsofoversized,extraordinarybonesinthefossilbedsoftheSiwalikHillsbelowtheHimalayas"[20]andthatancientGreekartisticdepictionsoftheMonsterofTroymayhavebeeninfluencedbyfossilsofSamotherium,anextinctspeciesofgiraffewhosefossilsarecommonintheMediterraneanregion.[20]InChina,aregionwherefossilsoflargeprehistoricanimalsarecommon,theseremainsarefrequentlyidentifiedas"dragonbones"[21]andarecommonlyusedintraditionalChinesemedicine.[21]Mayor,however,iscarefultopointoutthatnotallstoriesofdragonsandgiantsareinspiredbyfossils[21]andnotesthatScandinaviahasmanystoriesofdragonsandseamonsters,buthaslong"beenconsideredbarrenoflargefossils."[21]Inoneofherlaterbooks,shestatesthat"Manydragonimagesaroundtheworldwerebasedonfolkknowledgeorexaggerationsoflivingreptiles,suchasKomododragons,Gilamonsters,iguanas,alligators,or,inCalifornia,alligatorlizards,thoughthisstillfailstoaccountfortheScandinavianlegends,asnosuchanimals(historicalorotherwise)haveeverbeenfoundinthisregion."[22] RobertBlustinTheOriginOfDragons(2000)arguesthat,likemanyothercreationsoftraditionalcultures,dragonsarelargelyexplicableasproductsofaconvergenceofrationalpre-scientificspeculationabouttheworldofrealevents.Inthiscase,theeventisthenaturalmechanismgoverningrainfallanddrought,withparticularattentionpaidtothephenomenonoftherainbow.[23] Egyptianfolklore[edit] Egypt[edit] IllustrationfromanancientEgyptianpapyrusmanuscriptshowingthegodSetspearingtheserpentApepasheattacksthesunboatofRa InEgyptianmythology,ApeporApophisisagiantserpentinecreaturewhoresidesintheDuat,theEgyptianUnderworld.[24][25]TheBremner-Rhindpapyrus,writteninaround310BC,preservesanaccountofamucholderEgyptiantraditionthatthesettingofthesuniscausedbyRadescendingtotheDuattobattleApep.[24][25]Insomeaccounts,Apepisaslongastheheightofeightmenwithaheadmadeofflint.[25]ThunderstormsandearthquakeswerethoughttobecausedbyApep'sroar[26]andsolareclipseswerethoughttobetheresultofApepattackingRaduringthedaytime.[26]Insomemyths,ApepisslainbythegodSet.[27]NehebkauisanothergiantserpentwhoguardstheDuatandaidedRainhisbattleagainstApep.[26]Nehebkauwassomassiveinsomestoriesthattheentireearthwasbelievedtorestatophiscoils.[26]DenwenisagiantserpentmentionedinthePyramidTextswhosebodywasmadeoffireandwhoignitedaconflagrationthatnearlydestroyedallthegodsoftheEgyptianpantheon.[28]HewasultimatelydefeatedbythePharaoh,avictorywhichaffirmedthePharaoh'sdivinerighttorule.[29] Theouroboroswasawell-knownEgyptiansymbolofaserpentswallowingitsowntail.[30]Theprecursortotheouroboroswasthe"Many-Faced",[30]aserpentwithfiveheads,who,accordingtotheAmduat,theoldestsurvivingBookoftheAfterlife,wassaidtocoilaroundthecorpseofthesungodRaprotectively.[30]Theearliestsurvivingdepictionofa"true"ouroboroscomesfromthegildedshrinesinthetombofTutankhamun.[30]IntheearlycenturiesAD,theouroboroswasadoptedasasymbolbyGnosticChristians[31]andchapter136ofthePistisSophia,anearlyGnostictext,describes"agreatdragonwhosetailisinitsmouth".[31]Inmedievalalchemy,theouroborosbecameatypicalwesterndragonwithwings,legs,andatail.[30]Afamousimageofthedragongnawingonitstailfromtheeleventh-centuryCodexMarcianuswascopiedinnumerousworksonalchemy.[30] Asianfolklore[edit] AdragonfromtheNineDragonsScrollbyChenRong,1244AD. EastAsia[edit] China[edit] IllustrationofthedragonZhulongfromaseventeenth-centuryeditionoftheShanhaijing Dragonartonavase,YuandynastyTheword"dragon"hascometobeappliedtothelegendarycreatureinChinesemythology,loong(traditional龍,simplified龙,Japanesesimplified竜,Pinyinlóng),whichisassociatedwithgoodfortuneandManyEastAsiandeitiesanddemigodshavedragonsastheirpersonalmountsorcompanions.DragonswerealsoidentifiedwiththeEmperorofChina,who,duringlaterChineseimperialhistory,wastheonlyonepermittedtohavedragonsonhishouse,clothing,orpersonalarticles.Mainarticle:Chinesedragon ArchaeologistZhōuChong-FabelievesthattheChinesewordfordragonisanonomatopoeiaofthesoundofthunder[32]orlùhnginCantonese.[33] TheChinesedragon(simplifiedChinese:龙;traditionalChinese:龍;pinyin:lóng)isthehighest-rankingcreatureintheChineseanimalhierarchy.Itsoriginsarevague,butits"ancestorscanbefoundonNeolithicpotteryaswellasBronzeAgeritualvessels."[34]Anumberofpopularstoriesdealwiththerearingofdragons.[35]TheZuozhuan,whichwasprobablywrittenduringtheWarringStatesperiod,describesamannamedDongfu,adescendantofYangshu'an,wholoveddragons[35]and,becausehecouldunderstandadragon'swill,hewasabletotamethemandraisethemwell.[35]HeservedEmperorShun,whogavehimthefamilynameHuanlong,meaning"dragon-raiser".[35]Inanotherstory,KongJia,thefourteenthemperoroftheXiadynasty,wasgivenamaleandafemaledragonasarewardforhisobediencetothegodofheaven,[35]butcouldnottrainthem,sohehiredadragon-trainernamedLiulei,whohadlearnedhowtotraindragonsfromHuanlong.[35]Oneday,thefemaledragondiedunexpectedly,soLiuleisecretlychoppedherup,cookedhermeat,andservedittotheking,[35]wholoveditsomuchthathedemandedLiuleitoservehimthesamemealagain.[35]SinceLiuleihadnomeansofprocuringmoredragonmeat,hefledthepalace.[35] TheimageoftheChinesedragonwasroughlyestablishedintheShangandZhoudynasties,buttherewasnogreatchangeforalongtime.IntheHandynasty（202B.C.-220A.D.),Yinglong,asasymboloffeudalimperialpower,frequentlyappearedinRoyalDragonvessels,whichmeansthatmostofthedragonimagedesignsusedbytheroyalfamilyintheHanDynastyareYinglongpatterns.YinglongisawingeddragoninancientChineselegend.Atpresent,theliteraturerecordsofYinglong'swingedimagecanbetestedfrom"Guangya"（广雅),"wideelegant"duringtheThreeKingdomsperiod,butYinglong'swingeddesignhasbeenfoundinbronzewarefromtheShangandZhouDynastiestostonecarvings,silkpaintingsandlacquerwareoftheHanDynasty.TheliteraturerecordsofYinglongcanbetracedbacktothedocumentsofthepre-Qinperiod,suchas"ClassicofMountainsandSeas","Chuci"andsoon.Accordingtotherecordsin"ClassicofMountainsandSeas",theChinesemythologyin2200yearsago,YinglonghadthemaincharacteristicsoflaterChinesedragons-thepowertocontroltheskyandthenoblemythicalstatus.[36] However,sincetheTangandSongdynasties(618-1279A.D.),theimageoftherealdragonsymbolizingChina'simperialpowerwasnolongertheYinglongwithwings,butthecommonwinglessYellowDragoninmoderntimes.FortheevolutionofYinglongandHuanglong(YellowDragon）,ScholarChenZhengproposedin"Yinglong-theoriginoftheimageoftherealdragon"thatfromthemiddleoftheZhouDynasty,Yinglong'swingsgraduallybecametheformofflamepatternandcloudpatternatthedragon'sshoulderinartisticcreation,whichderivedthewinglesslongsnakeshape.TheimageofHuanglongwasusedtogetherwiththewingedYinglong.Sincethen,withaseriesofwars,Chinesecivilizationsufferedheavylosses,resultingintheforgettingoftheimageofwingedYinglong,andtheimageofwinglessYellowDragonreplacedtheoriginalYinglongandbecametherealdragonsymbolizingChina'simperialpower.Onthisbasis,scholarsXiaoCongrong（肖聪榕）putforwardthatthesimplifiedartisticcreationofYingLong'swingsbyChineseancestorsisacontinuousprocess,thatis,thesimplificationofdragon'swingsisanirreversibletrend.XiaoCongrongbelievesthatthephenomenonof"YellowDragon"Replacing"YingLong"cannotbeavoidedregardlessofwhetherChinesecivilizationhassuffereddisasterornot.[36] OneofthemostfamousdragonstoriesisabouttheLordYeGao,wholoveddragonsobsessively,eventhoughhehadneverseenone.[37]Hedecoratedhiswholehousewithdragonmotifs[37]and,seeingthisdisplayofadmiration,arealdragoncameandvisitedYeGao,[37]butthelordwassoterrifiedatthesightofthecreaturethatheranaway.[37]InChineselegend,thecultureheroFuHsiissaidtohavebeencrossingtheLoRiver,whenhesawthelungma,aChinesehorse-dragonwithsevendotsonitsface,sixonitsback,eightonitsleftflank,andnineonitsrightflank.[38]Hewassomovedbythisapparitionthat,whenhearrivedhome,hedrewapictureofit,includingthedots.[38]HelaterusedthesedotsaslettersandinventedChinesewriting,whichheusedtowritehisbookIChing.[38]InanotherChineselegend,thephysicianMaShihHuangissaidtohavehealedasickdragon.[39]AnotherlegendreportsthatamanoncecametothehealerLoChên-jen,tellinghimthathewasadragonandthatheneededtobehealed.[39]AfterLoChên-jenhealedtheman,adragonappearedtohimandcarriedhimtoheaven.[39] IntheShanhaijing,aclassicmythographyprobablycompiledmostlyduringtheHandynasty,variousdeitiesanddemigodsareassociatedwithdragons.[40]OneofthemostfamousChinesedragonsisYingLong("respondingdragon"),whohelpedtheHuangdi,theYellowEmperor,defeatthetyrantChiyou.[41]ThedragonZhulong("torchdragon")isagod"whocomposedtheuniversewithhisbody."[41]IntheShanhaijing,manymythicheroesaresaidtohavebeenconceivedaftertheirmotherscopulatedwithdivinedragons,includingHuangdi,Shennong,EmperorYao,andEmperorShun.[41]ThegodZhurongandtheemperorQiarebothdescribedasbeingcarriedbytwodragons,[42]asareHuangdi,Zhuanxu,Yuqiang,andRoshouinvariousothertexts.[35]AccordingtotheHuainanzi,anevilblackdragononcecausedadestructivedeluge,[35]whichwasendedbythemothergoddessNüwabyslayingthedragon.[35] HongwuEmperorwithdragonemblemonhischest.c.1377 AlargenumberofethnicmythsaboutdragonsaretoldthroughoutChina.[35]TheHouhanshu,compiledinthefifthcenturyBCbyFanYe,reportsastorybelongingtotheAilaoyipeople,whichholdsthatawomannamedShayiwholivedintheregionaroundMountLaobecamepregnantwithtensonsafterbeingtouchedbyatreetrunkfloatinginthewaterwhilefishing.[41]Shegavebirthtothesonsandthetreetrunkturnedintoadragon,whoaskedtoseehissons.[41]Thewomanshowedthemtohim,[41]butallofthemranawayexceptfortheyoungest,whothedragonlickedonthebackandnamedJiuLong,meaning"sittingback".[41]ThesonslaterelectedhimkingandthedescendantsofthetensonsbecametheAilaoyipeople,whotattooeddragonsontheirbacksinhonoroftheirancestor.[41]TheMiaopeopleofsouthwestChinahaveastorythatadivinedragoncreatedthefirsthumansbybreathingonmonkeysthatcametoplayinhiscave.[35]TheHanpeoplehavemanystoriesaboutShort-TailedOldLi,ablackdragonwhowasborntoapoorfamilyinShandong.[37]Whenhismothersawhimforthefirsttime,shefainted[37]and,whenhisfathercamehomefromthefieldandsawhim,hehithimwithaspadeandcutoffpartofhistail.[37]LiburstthroughtheceilingandflewawaytotheBlackDragonRiverinnortheastChina,wherehebecamethegodofthatriver.[43]Ontheanniversaryofhismother'sdeathontheChineselunarcalendar,OldLireturnshome,causingittorain.[44]Heisstillworshippedasaraingod.[44] DiagramrepresentingtheFourDragonKingsoftheFourSeasinrelationtothecentralDragonKingoftheEarth InChina,dragonisthoughttohavepoweroverrain.DragonsandtheirassociationswithrainarethesourceoftheChinesecustomsofdragondancinganddragonboatracing.Dragonsarecloselyassociatedwithrain[45]anddroughtisthoughttobecausedbyadragon'slaziness.[46]PrayersinvokingdragonstobringrainarecommoninChinesetexts.[45]TheLuxuriantDewoftheSpringandAutumnAnnals,attributedtotheHandynastyscholarDongZhongshu,prescribesmakingclayfigurinesofdragonsduringatimeofdroughtandhavingyoungmenandboyspaceanddanceamongthefigurinesinordertoencouragethedragonstobringrain.[45]TextsfromtheQingdynastyadvisehurlingtheboneofatigerordirtyobjectsintothepoolwherethedragonlives;[46]sincedragonscannotstandtigersordirt,thedragonofthepoolwillcauseheavyraintodrivetheobjectout.[46]RainmakingritualsinvokingdragonsarestillverycommoninmanyChinesevillages,whereeachvillagehasitsowngodsaidtobringrainandmanyofthesegodsaredragons.[46]TheChinesedragonkingsarethoughtofastheinspirationfortheHindumythofthenaga.[46]Accordingtothesestories,everybodyofwaterisruledbyadragonking,eachwithadifferentpower,rank,andability,[46]sopeoplebeganestablishingtemplesacrossthecountrysidededicatedtothesefigures.[46] HeadofadragonfromaChinesedragondanceperformedinHelsinkiintheyear2000. ManytraditionalChinesecustomsrevolvearounddragons.[47]Duringvariousholidays,includingtheSpringFestivalandLanternFestival,villagerswillconstructanapproximatelysixteen-foot-longdragonfromgrass,cloth,bamboostrips,andpaper,whichtheywillparadethroughthecityaspartofadragondance.[48]Theoriginalpurposeofthisritualwastobringgoodweatherandastrongharvest,[48]butnowitisdonemostlyonlyforentertainment.[48]DuringtheDuanwufestival,severalvillages,orevenawholeprovince,willholdadragonboatrace,inwhichpeopleraceacrossabodyofwaterinboatscarvedtolooklikedragons,whilealargeaudiencewatchesonthebanks.[48]ThecustomistraditionallysaidtohaveoriginatedafterthepoetQuYuancommittedsuicidebydrowninghimselfintheMiluoRiverandpeopleracedoutinboatshopingtosavehim,[48]butmosthistoriansagreethatthecustomactuallyoriginatedmuchearlierasaritualtoavertillfortune.[48]StartingduringtheHandynastyandcontinuinguntiltheQingdynasty,theChineseemperorgraduallybecamecloselyidentifiedwithdragons,[48]andemperorsthemselvesclaimedtobetheincarnationsofadivinedragon.[48]Eventually,dragonswereonlyallowedtoappearonclothing,houses,andarticlesofeverydayusebelongingtotheemperor[48]andanycommonerwhopossessedeverydayitemsbearingtheimageofthedragonwereorderedtobeexecuted.[48]AfterthelastChineseemperorwasoverthrownin1911,thissituationchangedandnowmanyordinaryChinesepeopleidentifythemselvesasdescendantsofdragons.[49] TheimpressionofdragonsinalargenumberofAsiancountrieshasbeeninfluencedbyChineseculture,suchasKorea,Vietnam,Japan,andsoon.Chinesetraditionhasalwaysusedthedragontotemasthenationalemblem,andthe"YellowDragonflag"oftheQingdynastyhasinfluencedtheimpressionthatChinaisadragoninmanyEuropeancountries. Silkpaintingdepictingamanridingadragon,datedto5th–3rdcenturiesBC TangdynastypaintingofadragonboatraceattributedtoLiZhaodao FlagoftheQingdynastyfrom1889to1912,showingaChinesedragon DragonsculptureontopofLungshanTemple,Taipei,Taiwan MembersoftheChineseYouthSocietyofMelbourneperformingforChineseNewYear,atCrownCasino,demonstrateabasic"corkscrew"routine Korea[edit] TheBlueDragonmuraldepictionattheGoguryeotombs. Mainarticle:Koreandragon TheKoreandragonisinmanywayssimilarinappearancetootherEastAsiandragonssuchastheChineseandJapanesedragons.ItdiffersfromtheChinesedragoninthatitdevelopedalongerbeard.VeryoccasionallyadragonmaybedepictedascarryinganorbknownastheYeouiju(여의주),theKoreannameforthemythicalCintamani,initsclawsoritsmouth.ItwassaidthatwhoevercouldwieldtheYeouijuwasblessedwiththeabilitiesofomnipotenceandcreationatwill,andthatonlyfour-toeddragons(whohadthumbswithwhichtoholdtheorbs)werebothwiseandpowerfulenoughtowieldtheseorbs,asopposedtothelesser,three-toeddragons.AswithChina,thenumbernineissignificantandauspiciousinKorea,anddragonsweresaidtohave81(9×9)scalesontheirbacks,representingyangessence.DragonsinKoreanmythologyareprimarilybenevolentbeingsrelatedtowaterandagriculture,oftenconsideredbringersofrainandclouds.Hence,manyKoreandragonsaresaidtohaveresidedinrivers,lakes,oceans,orevendeepmountainponds.Andhumanjourneystoundersearealms,andespeciallytheunderseapalaceoftheDragonKing(용왕),arecommoninKoreanfolklore.[50] InKoreanmyths,somekingswhofoundedkingdomsweredescribedasdescendantsofdragonsbecausethedragonwasasymbolofthemonarch.LadyAryeong,whowasthefirstqueenofSillaissaidtohavebeenbornfromacockatrice,[51]whilethegrandmotherofTaejoofGoryeo,founderofGoryeo,wasreportedlythedaughterofthedragonkingoftheWestSea.[52]AndKingMunmuofSilla,whoonhisdeathbedwishedtobecomeadragonoftheEastSeainordertoprotectthekingdom.Dragonpatternswereusedexclusivelybytheroyalfamily.Theroyalrobewasalsocalledthedragonrobe(용포).InJoseonDynasty,theroyalinsignia,featuringembroidereddragons,wereattachedtotherobe'sshoulders,thechest,andback.TheKingworefive-taloneddragoninsigniawhiletheCrownPrinceworefour-taloneddragoninsignia.[53] KoreanfolkmythologystatesthatmostdragonswereoriginallyImugis(이무기),orlesserdragons,whichweresaidtoresemblegiganticserpents.ThereareafewdifferentversionsofKoreanfolklorethatdescribebothwhatimugisareandhowtheyaspiretobecomefull-fledgeddragons.KoreansthoughtthatanImugicouldbecomeatruedragon,yongormireu,ifitcaughtaYeouijuwhichhadfallenfromheaven.Anotherexplanationstatestheyarehornlesscreaturesresemblingdragonswhohavebeencursedandthuswereunabletobecomedragons.Byotheraccounts,anImugiisaproto-dragonwhichmustsurviveonethousandyearsinordertobecomeafullyfledgeddragon.Ineithercasetheyaresaidtobelarge,benevolent,python-likecreaturesthatliveinwaterorcaves,andtheirsightingisassociatedwithgoodluck.[54] Japan[edit] PaintingofaJapanesedragonbyHokusai(c.1730–1849) Mainarticle:Japanesedragon JapanesedragonmythsamalgamatenativelegendswithimportedstoriesaboutdragonsfromChina.LikethoseotherAsiandragons,mostJapaneseonesarewaterdeitiesassociatedwithrainfallandbodiesofwater,andaretypicallydepictedaslarge,wingless,serpentinecreatureswithclawedfeet.Gouldwrites(1896:248),[55]theJapanesedragonis"invariablyfiguredaspossessingthreeclaws".AstoryaboutthesamuraiMinamotonoMitsunakatellsthat,whilehewashuntinginhisownterritoryofSettsu,hefellasleepunderatreeandhadadreaminwhichabeautifulwomanappearedtohimandbeggedhimtosaveherlandfromagiantserpentwhichwasdefilingit.[39]Mitsunakaagreedtohelpandthemaidengavehimamagnificenthorse.[39]Whenhewokeup,thehorsewasstandingbeforehim.[39]HerodeittotheSumiyoshitemple,whereheprayedforeightdays.[39]Thenheconfrontedtheserpentandslewitwithanarrow.[39] Itwasbelievedthatdragonscouldbeappeasedorexorcisedwithmetal.[39]NittaYoshisadaissaidtohavehurledafamousswordintotheseaatSagamitoappeasethedragon-godofthesea[39]andKinoTsurayukithrewametalmirrorintotheseaatSumiyoshiforthesamepurpose.[39]JapaneseBuddhismhasalsoadapteddragonsbysubjectingthemtoBuddhistlaw;[39]theJapaneseBuddhistdeitiesBentenandKwannonareoftenshownsittingorstandingonthebackofadragon.[39]SeveralJapanesesennin("immortals")havetakendragonsastheirmounts.[39]Bômôissaidtohavehurledhisstaffintoapuddleofwater,causingadragontocomeforthandlethimrideittoheaven.[39]TherakanHandakaissaidtohavebeenabletoconjureadragonoutofabowl,whichheisoftenshownplayingwithonkagamibuta.[39]Theshachihokoisacreaturewiththeheadofadragon,abushytail,fishlikescales,andsometimesfireemergingfromitsarmpits.[39]Theshifunhastheheadofadragon,featheredwings,andthetailandclawsofabird.[39]AwhitedragonwasbelievedtoresideinapoolinYamashiroProvince[56]and,everyfiftyyears,itwouldturnintoabirdcalledtheOgonchô,whichhadacalllikethe"howlingofawilddog".[56]Thiseventwasbelievedtoheraldterriblefamine.[56]IntheJapanesevillageofOkumura,nearEdo,duringtimesofdrought,thevillagerswouldmakeadragoneffigyoutofstraw,magnolialeaves,andbambooandparadeitthroughthevillagetoattractrainfall.[56] SouthAsia[edit] India[edit] Headofthedragon-godPakhangbadepictedonamusicalinstrumentfromManipur,India IntheRigveda,theoldestofthefourVedas,Indra,theVedicgodofstorms,battlesVṛtra,agiantserpentwhorepresentsdrought.[57]IndrakillsVṛtrausinghisvajra(thunderbolt)andclearsthepathforrain,[58][59]whichisdescribedintheformofcattle:"Youwonthecows,hero,youwontheSoma,/Youfreedthesevenstreamstoflow"(Rigveda1.32.12).[60]InanotherRigvediclegend,thethree-headedserpentViśvarūpa,thesonofTvaṣṭṛ,guardsawealthofcowsandhorses.[61]IndradeliversViśvarūpatoagodnamedTritaĀptya,[61]whofightsandkillshimandsetshiscattlefree.[61]IndracutsoffViśvarūpa'sheadsanddrivesthecattlehomeforTrita.[61]ThissamestoryisalludedtointheYoungerAvesta,[61]inwhichtheheroThraētaona,thesonofĀthbya,slaysthethree-headeddragonAžiDahākaandtakeshistwobeautifulwivesasspoils.[61]Thraētaona'sname(meaning"thirdgrandsonofthewaters")indicatesthatAžiDahāka,likeVṛtra,wasseenasablockerofwatersandcauseofdrought.[61] TheDruk(Dzongkha:འབྲུག་),alsoknownas'ThunderDragon',isoneoftheNationalsymbolsofBhutan.IntheDzongkhalanguage,BhutanisknownasDrukYul"LandofDruk",andBhutaneseleadersarecalledDrukGyalpo,"ThunderDragonKings".ThedrukwasadoptedasanemblembytheDrukpaLineage,whichoriginatedinTibetandlaterspreadtoBhutan.[62] SoutheastAsia[edit] Vietnam[edit] Nguyễndynastydragon,ImperialCityofHuế Mainarticle:Vietnamesedragon TheVietnamesedragon(Vietnamese:rồng龍)wasamythicalcreaturethatwasoftenusedasadeitysymbolandassociatedwithroyalty.[63]Similartoothercultures,dragonsinVietnameseculturerepresentyangandgodlybeingassociatedwithcreationandlife. WestAsia[edit] Ancient[edit] Mesopotamia[edit] Themušḫuššuisaserpentine,draconicmonsterfromancientMesopotamianmythologywiththebodyandneckofasnake,theforelegsofalion,andthehind-legsofabird.[64]HereitisshownasitappearsintheIshtarGatefromthecityofBabylon.[64] AncientpeopleacrosstheNearEastbelievedincreaturessimilartowhatmodernpeoplecall"dragons".[65]Theseancientpeoplewereunawareoftheexistenceofdinosaursorsimilarcreaturesinthedistantpast.[65]ReferencestodragonsofbothbenevolentandmalevolentcharactersoccurthroughoutancientMesopotamianliterature.[65]InSumerianpoetry,greatkingsareoftencomparedtotheušumgal,agigantic,serpentinemonster.[65]Adraconiccreaturewiththeforepartsofalionandthehind-legs,tail,andwingsofabirdappearsinMesopotamianartworkfromtheAkkadianPeriod(c. 2334–2154BC)untiltheNeo-BabylonianPeriod(626BC–539BC).[66]Thedragonisusuallyshownwithitsmouthopen.[66]Itmayhavebeenknownasthe(ūmu)nā’iru,whichmeans"roaringweatherbeast",[66]andmayhavebeenassociatedwiththegodIshkur(Hadad).[66]Aslightlydifferentlion-dragonwithtwohornsandthetailofascorpionappearsinartfromtheNeo-AssyrianPeriod(911BC–609BC).[66]AreliefprobablycommissionedbySennacheribshowsthegodsAshur,Sin,andAdadstandingonitsback.[66] Anotherdraconiccreaturewithhorns,thebodyandneckofasnake,theforelegsofalion,andthehind-legsofabirdappearsinMesopotamianartfromtheAkkadianPerioduntiltheHellenisticPeriod(323BC–31BC).[64]Thiscreature,knowninAkkadianasthemušḫuššu,meaning"furiousserpent",wasusedasasymbolforparticulardeitiesandalsoasageneralprotectiveemblem.[64]ItseemstohaveoriginallybeentheattendantoftheUnderworldgodNinazu,[64]butlaterbecametheattendanttotheHurrianstorm-godTishpak,aswellas,later,Ninazu'ssonNingishzida,theBabyloniannationalgodMarduk,thescribalgodNabu,andtheAssyriannationalgodAshur.[64] ScholarsdisagreeregardingtheappearanceofTiamat,theBabyloniangoddesspersonifyingprimevalchaosslainbyMardukintheBabyloniancreationepicEnûmaEliš.[67][68]Shewastraditionallyregardedbyscholarsashavinghadtheformofagiantserpent,[68]butseveralscholarshavepointedoutthatthisshape"cannotbeimputedtoTiamatwithcertainty"[68]andsheseemstohaveatleastsometimesbeenregardedasanthropomorphic.[67][68]Nonetheless,insometexts,sheseemstobedescribedwithhorns,atail,andahidethatnoweaponcanpenetrate,[67]allfeatureswhichsuggestshewasconceivedassomeformofdragoness.[67] Levant[edit] TheDestructionofLeviathan(1865)byGustaveDoré IntheUgariticBaalCycle,thesea-dragonLōtanuisdescribedas"thetwistingserpent/thepowerfulonewithsevenheads."[69]InKTU1.5I2–3,Lōtanuisslainbythestorm-godBaal,[69]but,inKTU1.3III41–42,heisinsteadslainbythevirginwarriorgoddessAnat.[69]IntheBookofPsalms,Psalm74,Psalm74:13–14,thesea-dragonLeviathan,isslainbyTheLORD,GodofthekingdomsofIsraelandJudah,aspartofthecreationoftheworld.[69][70]InIsaiah27:1,TheLORD'sdestructionofLeviathanisforetoldaspartofTheLORD'simpendingoverhauloftheuniversalorder:[71][72] OriginalHebrewtext[73] Englishtranslation אבַּיּוֹםהַהוּאיִפְקֹדיְהוָהבְּחַרְבּוֹהַקָּשָׁהוְהַגְּדוֹלָהוְהַחֲזָקָה,עַללִוְיָתָןנָחָשׁבָּרִחַ,וְעַללִוְיָתָן,נָחָשׁעֲקַלָּתוֹן;וְהָרַגאֶת-הַתַּנִּין,אֲשֶׁרבַּיָּם.{ס} OnthatdayTheLORDshallpunish withhissharp,great,andstrongsword, Leviathanthefleeingserpent,Leviathanthetwistingserpent; Hewillslaythedragonthatisinthesea.[69] Job41:1–34containsadetaileddescriptionoftheLeviathan,whoisdescribedasbeingsopowerfulthatonlyTheLORDcanovercomeit.[74]Job41:19–21statesthattheLeviathanexhalesfireandsmoke,makingitsidentificationasamythicaldragonclearlyapparent.[74]InsomepartsoftheOldTestament,theLeviathanishistoricizedasasymbolforthenationsthatstandagainstTheLORD.[70]Rahab,asynonymfor"Leviathan",isusedinseveralBiblicalpassagesinreferencetoEgypt.[70]Isaiah30:7declares:"ForEgypt'shelpisworthlessandempty,thereforeIhavecalledher'thesilencedRahab'."[70]Similarly,Psalm87:3reads:"IreckonRahabandBabylonasthosethatknowme..."[70]InEzekiel29:3–5andEzekiel32:2–8,thepharaohofEgyptisdescribedasa"dragon"(tannîn).[70]InthestoryofBelandtheDragonfromtheBookofDaniel,theprophetDanielseesadragonbeingworshippedbytheBabylonians.[75]Danielmakes"cakesofpitch,fat,andhair";[75]thedragoneatsthemandburstsopen.[76][75] AncientandPost-classical[edit] Iran/Persia[edit] AzhiDahaka(AvestanGreatSnake)isadragonordemonicfigureinthetextsandmythologyofZoroastrianPersia,whereheisoneofthesubordinatesofAngraMainyu.AlternatenamesincludeAziDahak,Dahaka,Dahak.Aži(nominativeažiš)istheAvestanwordfor"serpent"or"dragon.[77]TheAvestantermAžiDahākaandtheMiddlePersianazdahāgarethesourceoftheMiddlePersianManichaeandemonofgreed"Az",OldArmenianmythologicalfigureAždahak,ModernPersian'aždehâ/aždahâ',TajikPersian'azhdahâ',Urdu'azhdahā'(اژدها),aswellastheKurdishejdîha(ئەژدیها). ThenamealsomigratedtoEasternEurope,assumedtheform"azhdaja"andthemeaning"dragon","dragoness"or"watersnake"inBalkanicandSlaviclanguages.[78][79][80] DespitethenegativeaspectofAžiDahākainmythology,dragonshavebeenusedonsomebannersofwarthroughoutthehistoryofIranianpeoples. TheAzhdarchidgroupofpterosaursarenamedfromaPersianwordfor"dragon"thatultimatelycomesfromAžiDahāka. InZoroastrianliterature AžiDahākaisthemostsignificantandlong-lastingoftheažisoftheAvesta,theearliestreligioustextsofZoroastrianism.Heisdescribedasamonsterwiththreemouths,sixeyes,andthreeheads,cunning,strong,anddemonic.InotherrespectsAžiDahākahashumanqualities,andisneveramereanimal.Inapost-AvestanZoroastriantext,theDēnkard,AžiDahākaispossessedofallpossiblesinsandevilcounsels,theoppositeofthegoodkingJam(orJamshid).ThenameDahāg(Dahāka)ispunninglyinterpretedasmeaning"havingten(dah)sins". InPersianSufiliterature,RumiwritesinhisMasnavi[81]thatthedragonsymbolizesthesensualsoul,greedandlust,thatneedtobemortifiedinaspiritualbattle.[82][83] Rustamkillsthedragon,foliofromShahnamehofShahIsmailII,attrib.Sadegi(Beg),Iran,Tabriz,c.1576AD,view1–AgaKhanMuseum–Toronto,Canada InFerdowsi'sShahnameh,theIranianheroRostammustslayan80-meter-longdragon(whichrendersitselfinvisibletohumansight)withtheaidofhislegendaryhorse,Rakhsh.AsRostamissleeping,thedragonapproaches;RakhshattemptstowakeRostam,butfailstoalerthimtothedangeruntilRostamseesthedragon.Rakhshbitesthedragon,whileRostamdecapitatesit.ThisisthethirdtrialofRostam'sSevenLabors.[84][85][86] RostamisalsocreditedwiththeslaughterofotherdragonsintheShahnamehandinotherIranianoraltraditions,notablyinthemythofBabr-e-Bayan.Inthistale,Rostamisstillanadolescentandkillsadragoninthe"Orient"(eitherIndiaorChinadependingonthesource)byforcingittoswalloweitheroxhidesfilledwithquicklimeandstonesorpoisonedblades.Thedragonswallowstheseforeignobjectsanditsstomachbursts,afterwhichRostamflaysthedragonandfashionsacoatfromitshidecalledthebabr-ebayān.Insomevariantsofthestory,Rostamthenremainsunconsciousfortwodaysandnights,butisguardedbyhissteedRakhsh.Onreviving,hewasheshimselfinaspring.IntheMandeantraditionofthestory,Rostamhidesinabox,isswallowedbythedragonandkillsitfrominsideitsbelly.ThekingofChinathengivesRostamhisdaughterinmarriageasareward.[87][88] Europeanfolklore[edit] Proto-Indo-European[edit] Furtherinformation:Chaoskampf,Seaserpent,Proto-Indo-Europeanreligion§ DragonorSerpent,andSerpentsintheBible ThestoryofaheroslayingagiantserpentoccursinnearlyeveryIndo-Europeanmythology.[89][90]Inmoststories,theheroissomekindofthunder-god.[90]Innearlyeveryiterationofthestory,theserpentiseithermulti-headedor"multiple"insomeotherway.[89]Furthermore,innearlyeverystory,theserpentisalwayssomehowassociatedwithwater.[90]BruceLincolnhasproposedthataProto-Indo-Europeandragon-slayingmythcanbereconstructedasfollows:[91][92]First,theskygodsgivecattletoamannamed*Tritos("thethird"),whoissonamedbecauseheisthethirdmanonearth,[91][92]butathree-headedserpentnamed*Ngwhistealsthem.[91][92]*Tritospursuestheserpentandisaccompaniedby*Hanér,whosenamemeans"man".[91][92]Together,thetwoheroesslaytheserpentandrescuethecattle.[91][92] AncientGreekandRoman[edit] Greekred-figurevasepaintingdepictingHeraclesslayingtheLernaeanHydra,c.375–340BC Mainarticle:DragonsinGreekmythology TheancientGreekwordusuallytranslatedas"dragon"(δράκωνdrákōn,genitiveδράκοντοϛdrákontos)couldalsomean"snake",[93][6]butitusuallyreferstoakindofgiantserpentthateitherpossessessupernaturalcharacteristicsorisotherwisecontrolledbysomesupernaturalpower.[94]Thefirstmentionofa"dragon"inancientGreekliteratureoccursintheIliad,inwhichAgamemnonisdescribedashavingabluedragonmotifonhisswordbeltandanemblemofathree-headeddragononhisbreastplate.[95]Inlines820–880oftheTheogony,aGreekpoemwrittenintheseventhcenturyBCbytheBoeotianpoetHesiod,theGreekgodZeusbattlesthemonsterTyphon,whohasonehundredserpentheadsthatbreathefireandmakemanyfrighteninganimalnoises.[60]ZeusscorchesallofTyphon'sheadswithhislightningboltsandthenhurlsTyphonintoTartarus.[96]IntheHomericHymntoApollo,thegodApollouseshispoisonedarrowstoslaytheserpentPython,whohasbeencausingdeathandpestilenceintheareaaroundDelphi.[97][96]Apollothensetsuphisshrinethere.[96] TheRomanpoetVirgilinhispoemCulex,lines163–201[1],describingashepherdhavingafightwithabigconstrictingsnake,callsit"serpens"andalso"draco",showingthatinhistimethetwowordswereprobablyinterchangeable. Atticred-figurekylixpaintingfromc.480–470BCshowingAthenaobservingastheColchiandragondisgorgestheheroJason[98][99] HesiodalsomentionsthattheheroHeraclesslewtheLernaeanHydra,amultiple-headedserpentwhichdweltintheswampsofLerna.[100]Thename"Hydra"means"watersnake"inGreek.[96][101]AccordingtotheBibliothekaofPseudo-Apollodorus,theslayingoftheHydrawasthesecondoftheTwelveLaborsofHeracles.[102][96]AccountsdisagreeonwhichweaponHeraclesusedtoslaytheHydra,[96]but,bytheendofthesixthcenturyBC,itwasagreedthattheclubbedorseveredheadsneededtobecauterizedtopreventthemfromgrowingback.[103][96]HeracleswasaidedinthistaskbyhisnephewIolaus.[103]Duringthebattle,agiantcrabcrawledoutofthemarshandpinchedHeracles'sfoot,[102]buthecrusheditunderhisheel.[104]HeraplacedthecrabintheskyastheconstellationCancer.[104]OneoftheHydra'sheadswasimmortal,soHeraclesburieditunderaheavyrockaftercuttingitoff.[96][104]ForhisEleventhLabor,HeraclesmustprocureagoldenapplefromthetreeintheGardenoftheHesperides,whichisguardedbyanenormousserpentthatneversleeps,[105]whichPseudo-Apollodoruscalls"Ladon".[106]Inearlierdepictions,Ladonisoftenshownwithmanyheads.[107]InPseudo-Apollodorus'saccount,Ladonisimmortal,[107]butSophoclesandEuripidesbothdescribeHeraclesaskillinghim,althoughneitherofthemspecifieshow.[107]ThemythographerHerodorusisthefirsttostatethatHeraclesslewhimusinghisfamousclub.[107]ApolloniusofRhodes,inhisepicpoemtheArgonautica,describesLadonashavingbeenshotfullofpoisonedarrowsdippedinthebloodoftheHydra.[108] InPindar'sFourthPythianOde,AeëtesofColchistellstheheroJasonthattheGoldenFleeceheisseekingisinacopseguardedbyadragon,"whichsurpassedinbreadthandlengthafifty-oaredship".[109]JasonslaysthedragonandmakesoffwiththeGoldenFleecetogetherwithhisco-conspirator,Aeëtes'sdaughter,Medea.[110]TheearliestartisticrepresentationofthisstoryisanAtticred-figurekylixdatedtoc.480–470BC,[111]showingabedraggledJasonbeingdisgorgedfromthedragon'sopenmouthastheGoldenFleecehangsinatreebehindhimandAthena,thegoddessofwisdom,standswatching.[111][99]AfragmentfromPherecydesofAthensstatesthatJasonkilledthedragon,[110]butfragmentsfromtheNaupacticaandfromHerodorusstatethathemerelystoletheFleeceandescaped.[110]InEuripides'sMedea,MedeaboaststhatshekilledtheColchiandragonherself.[110]InthemostfamousretellingofthestoryfromApolloniusofRhodes'sArgonautica,Medeadrugsthedragontosleep,allowingJasontostealtheFleece.[112]Greekvasepaintingsshowherfeedingthedragonthesleepingdruginaliquidformfromaphialē,orshallowcup.[113] Paestanred-figurekylix-krater(c.350–340BC)showingCadmusfightingthedragonofAres[114] InthefoundingmythofThebes,Cadmus,aPhoenicianprince,wasinstructedbyApollotofollowaheiferandfoundacitywhereveritlaiddown.[115]Cadmusandhismenfollowedtheheiferand,whenitlaiddown,CadmusorderedhismentofindaspringsohecouldsacrificetheheifertoAthena.[115]Hismenfoundaspring,butitwasguardedbyadragon,whichhadbeenplacedtherebythegodAres,andthedragonkilledthem.[115]Cadmuskilledthedragoninrevenge,[115][116]eitherbysmashingitsheadwitharockorusinghissword.[115]FollowingtheadviceofAthena,Cadmustoreoutthedragon'steethandplantedthemintheearth.[115][116]Anarmyofgiantwarriors(knownasspartoi,whichmeans"sownmen")grewfromtheteethlikeplants.[115][116]Cadmushurledstonesintotheirmidst,causingthemtokilleachotheruntilonlyfivewereleft.[115]TomakerestitutionforhavingkilledAres'sdragon,CadmuswasforcedtoserveAresasaslaveforeightyears.[115]Attheendofthisperiod,CadmusmarriedHarmonia,thedaughterofAresandAphrodite.[115]CadmusandHarmoniamovedtoIllyria,wheretheyruledaskingandqueen,beforeeventuallybeingtransformedintodragonsthemselves.[117] InthefifthcenturyBC,theGreekhistorianHerodotusreportedinBookIVofhisHistoriesthatwesternLibyawasinhabitedbymonstrousserpents[118]and,inBookIII,hestatesthatArabiawashometomanysmall,wingedserpents,[119][120]whichcameinavarietyofcolorsandenjoyedthetreesthatproducedfrankincense.[119][118]Herodotusremarksthattheserpent'swingswerelikethoseofbats[121]andthat,unlikevipers,whicharefoundineveryland,wingedserpentsareonlyfoundinArabia.[121]Thesecond-centuryBCGreekastronomerHipparchus(c.190BC–c. 120BC)listedtheconstellationDraco("thedragon")asoneofforty-sixconstellations.[122]Hipparchusdescribedtheconstellationascontainingfifteenstars,[123]butthelaterastronomerPtolemy(c.100–c. 170AD)increasedthisnumbertothirty-oneinhisAlmagest.[123] AncientGreekmosaicfromCaulonia,Italy,depictingacetusorsea-dragon IntheNewTestament,Revelation12:3,writtenbyJohnofPatmos,describesavisionofaGreatRedDragonwithsevenheads,tenhorns,sevencrowns,andamassivetail,[124]animagewhichisclearlyinspiredbythevisionofthefourbeastsfromtheseaintheBookofDaniel[125]andtheLeviathandescribedinvariousOldTestamentpassages.[126]TheGreatRedDragonknocks"athirdofthesun ...athirdofthemoon,andathirdofthestars"outthesky[127]andpursuestheWomanoftheApocalypse.[127]Revelation12:7–9declares:"AndwarbrokeoutinHeaven.MichaelandhisangelsfoughtagainstDragon.Dragonandhisangelsfoughtback,buttheyweredefeated,andtherewasnolongeranyplacefortheminHeaven.DragontheGreatwasthrowndown,thatancientserpentwhoiscalledDevilandSatan,theonedeceivingthewholeinhabitedWorld–hewasthrowndowntoearthandhisangelswerethrowndownwithhim."[128]ThenavoiceboomsdownfromHeavenheraldingthedefeatof"theAccuser"(hoKantegor).[129] In217AD,FlaviusPhilostratusdiscusseddragons(δράκων,drákōn)inIndiainTheLifeofApolloniusofTyana(II,17andIII,6–8).TheLoebClassicalLibrarytranslation(byF.C.Conybeare)mentions(III,7)that"Inmostrespectsthetusksresemblethelargestswine's,buttheyareslighterinbuildandtwisted,andhaveapointasunabradedassharks'teeth."AccordingtoacollectionofbooksbyClaudiusAelianuscalledOnAnimals,Ethiopiawasinhabitedbyaspeciesofdragonthathuntedelephantsandcouldgrowtoalengthof180feet(55m)withalifespanrivalingthatofthemostenduringofanimals.[130] Post-classicalGermanic[edit] Mainarticle:Germanicdragon DrawingoftheRamsundcarvingfromc.1030,illustratingtheVölsungasagaonarockinSweden.At(5),SigurdplungeshisswordintoFafnir'sunderside. IntheOldNorsepoemGrímnismálinthePoeticEdda,thedragonNíðhöggrisdescribedasgnawingontherootsofYggdrasil,theworldtree.[131]InNorsemythology,JörmungandrisagiantserpentthatencirclestheentirerealmofMiðgarðintheseaaroundit.[132]AccordingtotheGylfaginningfromtheProseEdda,writtenbythethirteenth-centuryIcelandicmythographerSnorriSturluson,Thor,theNorsegodofthunder,oncewentoutonaboatwiththegiantHymnirtotheouterseaandfishedforJörmungandrusinganox-headasbait.[132]Thorcaughttheserpentand,afterpullingitsheadoutofthewater,smasheditwithhishammerMjölnir.[132]Snorristatesthattheblowwasnotfatal:"andmensaythathestruckitsheadoffontheseabed.ButIthinkthetruthtotellyouisthattheMiðgarðSerpentstilllivesandliesinthesurroundingsea."[132] TowardstheendoftheOldEnglishepicpoemBeowulf,aslavestealsacupfromthehoardofasleepingdragon,[133]causingthedragontowakeupandgoonarampageofdestructionacrossthecountryside.[134]Theeponymousheroofthepoeminsistsonconfrontingthedragonalone,eventhoughheisofadvancedage,[135][136]butWiglaf,theyoungestofthetwelvewarriorsBeowulfhasbroughtwithhim,insistsonaccompanyinghiskingintothebattle.[137]Beowulf'sswordshattersduringthefightandheismortallywounded,[138][139]butWiglafcomestohisrescueandhelpshimslaythedragon.[139]BeowulfdiesandtellsWiglafthatthedragon'streasuremustbeburiedratherthansharedwiththecowardlywarriorswhodidnotcometotheaidoftheirking.[140] IntheOldNorseVölsungasaga,theheroSigurdcatchesthedragonFafnirbydiggingapitbetweenthecavewherehelivesandthespringwherehedrinkshiswater[141]andkillshimbystabbinghimintheunderside.[141]AttheadviceofOdin,SigurddrainsFafnir'sbloodanddrinksit,whichgiveshimtheabilitytounderstandthelanguageofthebirds,[142]whohehearstalkingabouthowhismentorReginisplottingtobetrayhimsothathecankeepallofFafnir'streasureforhimself.[142][143]ThemotifofaherotryingtosneakpastasleepingdragonandstealsomeofitstreasureiscommonthroughoutmanyOldNorsesagas.[144]Thefourteenth-centuryFlóressagakonungsoksonahansdescribesaherowhoisactivelyconcernednottowakeasleepingdragonwhilesneakingpastit.[144]IntheYngvarssagavíðförla,theprotagonistattemptstostealtreasurefromseveralsleepingdragons,butaccidentallywakesthemup.[144] Post-classicalWestern[edit] Fifteenth-centurymanuscriptillustrationofthebattleoftheRedandWhiteDragonsfromGeoffreyofMonmouth'sHistoryoftheKingsofBritain Mainarticles:Europeandragon,WelshDragon,Wyvern,SaintGeorgeandtheDragon,MargarettheVirgin,andDacianDraco Themodern,westernimageofadragondevelopedinwesternEuropeduringtheMiddleAgesthroughthecombinationofthesnakelikedragonsofclassicalGraeco-Romanliterature,referencestoNearEasternEuropeandragonspreservedintheBible,andwesternEuropeanfolktraditions.[145]TheperiodbetweentheeleventhandthirteenthcenturiesrepresentstheheightofEuropeaninterestindragonsaslivingcreatures.[146]Thetwelfth-centuryWelshmonkGeoffreyofMonmouthrecountsafamouslegendinhisHistoriaRegumBritanniaeinwhichthechildprophetMerlinwitnessestheRomano-CelticwarlordVortigernattempttobuildatoweronMountSnowdontokeepsafefromtheAnglo-Saxons,[147]butthetowerkeepsbeingswallowedintotheground.[147]MerlininformsVortigernthat,underneaththefoundationhehasbuilt,isapoolwithtwodragonssleepinginit.[147]Vortigernordersforthepooltobedrained,exposingareddragonandawhitedragon,whoimmediatelybeginfighting.[147]Merlindeliversaprophecythatthewhitedragonwilltriumphoverthered,symbolizingEngland'sconquestofWales,[147]butdeclaresthatthereddragonwilleventuallyreturnanddefeatthewhiteone.[148]Thisstoryremainedpopularthroughoutthefifteenthcentury.[148] MSHarley3244,amedievalmanuscriptdatedtoaround1260AD,containstheoldestrecognizableimageofafullymodern,westerndragon.[13] Theoldestrecognizableimageofafullymodern,westerndragonappearsinahand-paintedillustrationfromthemedievalmanuscriptMSHarley3244,whichwasproducedinaround1260AD.[13]Thedragonintheillustrationhastwosetsofwingsanditstailislongerthanmostmoderndepictionsofdragons,[13]butitclearlydisplaysmanyofthesamedistinctivefeatures.[13]Dragonsaregenerallydepictedaslivinginriversorhavinganundergroundlairorcave.[149]Theyareenvisionedasgreedyandgluttonous,withvoraciousappetites.[145]TheyareoftenidentifiedwithSatan,duetothereferencestoSatanasa"dragon"intheBookofRevelation.[145]Thethirteenth-centuryGoldenLegend,writteninLatin,recordsthestoryofSaintMargaretofAntioch,[75]avirginmartyrwho,afterbeingtorturedforherfaithintheDiocletianicPersecutionandthrownbackintohercell,issaidtohavebeenconfrontedbyamonstrousdragon,[75]butshemadethesignofthecrossandthedragonvanished.[75]Insomeversionsofthestory,sheisactuallyswallowedbythedragonaliveand,aftermakingthesignofthecrossinthedragon'sstomach,emergesunharmed.[75] ManuscriptillustrationfromVeronaofSaintGeorgeslayingthedragon,datingtoc.1270 ThelegendofSaintGeorgeandtheDragonmaybereferencedasearlyasthesixthcenturyAD,[150][151]buttheearliestartisticrepresentationsofitcomefromtheeleventhcentury[150]andthefirstfullaccountofitcomesfromaneleventh-centuryGeorgiantext.[152]ThemostfamousversionofthestoryfromtheGoldenLegendholdsthatadragonkeptpillagingthesheepofthetownofSileneinLibya.[150]Afteritateayoungshepherd,thepeoplewereforcedtoplacateitbyleavingtwosheepassacrificialofferingseverymorningbesidethelakewherethedragonlived.[150]Eventually,thedragonateallofthesheep[153]andthepeoplewereforcedtostartofferingittheirownchildren.[153]Oneday,theking'sowndaughtercameupinthelotteryand,despitetheking'spleasforherlife,shewasdressedasabrideandchainedtoarockbesidethelaketobeeaten.[153]Then,SaintGeorgearrivedandsawtheprincess.[153]Whenthedragonarrivedtoeather,hestabbeditwithhislanceandsubdueditbymakingthesignofthecrossandtyingtheprincess'sgirdlearounditsneck.[153]SaintGeorgeandtheprincessledthenow-dociledragonintothetownandGeorgepromisedtokillitifthetownspeoplewouldconverttoChristianity.[154]AllthetownspeopleconvertedandSaintGeorgekilledthedragonwithhissword.[154]Insomeversions,SaintGeorgemarriestheprincess,[154]but,inothers,hecontinueswandering.[154] Gargoylesarecarvedstonefiguressometimesresemblingdragonsthatoriginallyservedaswaterspoutsonbuildings.[155][156]PrecursorstothemedievalgargoylecanbefoundonancientGreekandEgyptiantemples,[155][157][158]but,overthecourseoftheMiddleAges,manyfantasticstorieswereinventedtoexplainthem.[159]OnemedievalFrenchlegendholdsthat,inancienttimes,afearsomedragonknownasLaGargouillehadbeencausingfloodsandsinkingshipsontheriverSeine,[160]sothepeopleofthetownofRouenwouldofferthedragonahumansacrificeonceeachyeartoappeaseitshunger.[160]Then,inaround600AD,apriestnamedRomanuspromisedthat,ifthepeoplewouldbuildachurch,hewouldridthemofthedragon.[160]Romanusslewthedragonanditsseveredheadwasmountedonthewallsofthecityasthefirstgargoyle.[160][161] Dragonsareprominentinmedievalheraldry.[162]UtherPendragonwasfamouslysaidtohavehadtwogolddragonscrownedwithredstandingback-to-backonhisroyalcoatofarms.[163]Originally,heraldicdragonscouldhaveanynumberoflegs,[162]but,bythelateMiddleAges,duetothewidespreadproliferationofbestiaries,heraldrybegantodistinguishbetweena"dragon"(whichcouldonlyhaveexactlyfourlegs)anda"wyvern"(whichcouldonlyhaveexactlytwo).[162]Inmyths,wyvernsareassociatedwithviciousness,envy,andpestilence,[162]but,inheraldry,theyareusedassymbolsforoverthrowingthetyrannyofSatanandhisdemonicforces.[162]Latemedievalheraldryalsodistinguishedadraconiccreatureknownasa"cockatrice".[162]Acockatriceissupposedlybornwhenaserpenthatchesaneggthathasbeenlaidonadunghillbyarooster[162]anditissovenomousthatitsbreathanditsgazearebothlethaltoanylivingcreature,exceptforaweasel,whichisthecockatrice'smortalenemy.[162]Abasiliskisaserpentwiththeheadofadragonattheendofitstailthatisbornwhenatoadhatchesaneggthathasbeenlaidinamiddenbyanine-year-oldcockatrice.[162]Likethecockatrice,itsglareissaidtobedeadly.[162] Post-classicalEastern[edit] ZmeyGorynych,athree-headeddragonfromRussianfolklore. IllustrationoftheWawelDragonfromSebastianMünster'sCosmographieUniversalis(1544). Mainarticles:SlavicdragonandKulshedra InAlbanianmythologyandfolklore,stihi,ljubi,bolla,bollar,errshajaandkulshedraaremythologicalfiguresdescribedasserpentinedragons.Itisbelievedthatbolla,awaterandchthonicdemonicserpent,undergoesmetamorphosispassingthroughfourdistinctphasesifitlivesmanyyearswithoutbeingseenbyahuman.Thebollaranderrshajaaretheintermediatestages,whilethekulshedraistheultimatephase,describedasahugemulti-headedfire-spittingfemaleserpentwhichcausesdrought,storms,flooding,earthquakesandothernaturaldisastersagainstmankind.Sheisusuallyfoughtanddefeatedbyadrangue,asemi-humanwingeddivineheroandprotectorofhumans.Heavythunderstormsarethoughttobetheresultoftheirbattles.[164][165] InSlavicmythology,thewords"zmey","zmiy"or"zmaj"areusedtodescribedragons.ThesewordsaremasculineformsoftheSlavicwordfor"snake",whicharenormallyfeminine(likeRussianzmeya).InRomania,thereisasimilarfigure,derivedfromtheSlavicdragonandnamedzmeu.ExclusivelyinPolishandBelarusianfolklore,aswellasintheotherSlavicfolklores,adragonisalsocalled(variously)смок,цмок,orsmok.InSouthSlavicfolklores,thesamethingisalsocalledlamya(ламя,ламjа,lamja).AlthoughquitesimilartootherEuropeandragons,Slavicdragonshavetheirpeculiarities. InRussianandUkrainianfolklore,ZmeyGorynychisadragonwiththreeheads,eachonebearingtwingoatlikehorns.[166]Heissaidtohavebreathedfireandsmelledofsulfur.[166]ItwasbelievedthateclipseswerecausedbyGorynychtemporarilyswallowingthesun.[167]Accordingtoonelegend,Gorynych'sunclewastheevilsorcererNemalChelovek,whoabductedthedaughterofthetsarandimprisonedherinhiscastleintheUralMountains.[167]Manyknightstriedtofreeher,butallofthemwerekilledbyGorynych'sfire.[167]ThenapalaceguardinMoscownamedIvanTsarevichoverheardtwocrowstalkingabouttheprincess.[168]Hewenttothetsar,whogavehimamagicsword,andsnuckintothecastle.[169]WhenChelovekattackedIvanintheformofagiant,theswordflewfromIvan'shandunbiddenandkilledhim.[169]ThentheswordcutoffallthreeofGorynych'sheadsatonce.[169]Ivanbroughttheprincessbacktothetsar,whodeclaredIvananoblemanandallowedhimtomarrytheprincess.[169] ApopularPolishfolktaleisthelegendoftheWawelDragon,[170][171][172]whichisfirstrecordedintheChronicaPolonorumofWincentyKadłubek,writtenbetween1190and1208.[171][172]AccordingtoKadłubek,thedragonappearedduringthereignofKingKrakus[171]anddemandedtobefedafixednumberofcattleeveryweek.[171]Ifthevillagersfailedtoprovideenoughcattle,thedragonwouldeatthesamenumberofvillagersasthenumberofcattletheyhadfailedtoprovide.[171]Krakusorderedhissonstoslaythedragon.[171]Sincetheycouldnotslayitbyhand,[171]theytrickedthedragonintoeatingcalfskinsfilledwithburningsulfur.[171]Oncethedragonwasdead,theyoungerbrotherattackedandmurderedhisolderbrotherandreturnedhometoclaimallthegloryforhimself,[171]tellinghisfatherthathisbrotherhaddiedfightingthedragon.[171]Theyoungerbrotherbecamekingafterhisfatherdied,buthissecretwaseventuallyrevealedandhewasbanished.[171]Inthefifteenthcentury,JanDługoszrewrotethestorysothatKingKrakushimselfwastheonewhoslewthedragon.[170][171][172]AnotherversionofthestorytoldbyMarcinBielskiinsteadhastheclevershoemakerSkubacomeupwiththeideaforslayingthedragon.[171][173]Bielski'sversionisnowthemostpopular.[171] Moderndepictions[edit] Seealso:Listofdragonsinfiction ModernfanillustrationbyDavidDemaretofthedragonSmaugfromJ.R.R.Tolkien's1937highfantasynovelTheHobbit Dragonsanddragonmotifsarefeaturedinmanyworksofmodernliterature,particularlywithinthefantasygenre.[174][175]Asearlyastheeighteenthcentury,criticalthinkerssuchasDenisDiderotwerealreadyassertingthattoomuchliteraturehadbeenpublishedondragons:"Therearealreadyinbooksalltoomanyfabulousstoriesofdragons".[176]InLewisCarroll'sclassicchildren'snovelThroughtheLooking-Glass(1872),oneoftheinsetpoemsdescribestheJabberwock,akindofdragon.[12]Carroll'sillustratorJohnTenniel,afamouspoliticalcartoonist,humorouslyshowedtheJabberwockwiththewaistcoat,buckteeth,andmyopiceyesofaVictorianuniversitylecturer,suchasCarrollhimself.[12]Inworksofcomedicchildren'sfantasy,dragonsoftenfulfilltheroleofamagicfairytalehelper.[177]Insuchworks,ratherthanbeingfrighteningastheyaretraditionallyportrayed,dragonsareinsteadrepresentedasharmless,benevolent,andinferiortohumans.[177]Theyaresometimesshownlivingincontactwithhumans,orinisolatedcommunitiesofonlydragons.[177]Thoughpopularinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,"suchcomicandidyllicstories"begantogrowincreasinglyrareafterthe1960s,duetodemandformoreseriouschildren'sliterature.[177] OneofthemosticonicmoderndragonsisSmaugfromJ.R.R.Tolkien'sclassicnovelTheHobbit.[174]Dragonsalsoappearinthebest-sellingHarryPotterseriesofchildren'snovelsbyJ.K.Rowling.[12]OtherprominentworksdepictingdragonsincludeAnneMcCaffrey'sDragonridersofPern,UrsulaK.LeGuin'sEarthseaCycle,GeorgeR.R.Martin'sseriesASongofIceandFire,andChristopherPaolini'sInheritanceCycle.SandraMartinaSchwabwrites,"Withafewexceptions,includingMcCaffrey'sPernnovelsandthe2002filmReignofFire,dragonsseemtofitmoreintothemedievalizedsettingoffantasyliteraturethanintothemoretechnologicalworldofsciencefiction.Indeed,theyhavebeencalledtheemblemoffantasy.Thehero'sfightagainstthedragonemphasizesandcelebrateshismasculinity,whereasrevisionistfantasiesofdragonsanddragon-slayingoftenunderminetraditionalgenderroles.Inchildren'sliteraturethefriendlydragonbecomesapowerfulallyinbattlingthechild'sfears."[178]Thepopularrole-playinggamesystemDungeons&Dragons(D&D)makesheavyuseofdragons.[13] Afterrecentdiscoveriesinpalaeontology,fictionaldragonsaresometimesrepresentedwithnofrontlegs,but(whenontheground)walkingontheirbackfeetandthewristsoftheirwings,likepterosaursdid:forexamplesee(inGameofThrones)and(Smaug,asinthemovie). JohnTenniel'sillustrationoftheJabberwockforLewisCarroll'sThroughtheLooking-Glass,showingthedragonasamyopicprofessor[12] Fire-breathingstatueoftheUkrainianIronbellyfromHarryPotterandtheDeathlyHallows–Part2atUniversalStudiosFlorida Representationofadragonasitappearsintherole-playinggameDungeons&Dragons Seealso[edit]  Mythologyportal Balaur Bat(heraldry) Behemoth Dinosaur Dragonology Feilong(mythology) Guivre Ichneumon(medievalzoology) Mokele-mbembe PartridgeCreekmonster Snallygaster TheLastDragon,fictional2004documentary Listofdragonsinliterature Listofdragonsinmythologyandfolklore Listofdragonsinpopularculture Notes[edit] References[edit] ^Stromberg,Joseph(23January2012)."WhereDidDragonsComeFrom?".Smithsonian.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4October2019.Retrieved2September2019. ^"ArcheologistsFindCrocodileisPrototypeofDragon".People'sDaily.29April2000.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2September2019.Retrieved2September2019. 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Fee,ChristopherR.(2011),Chance,Jane(ed.),MythologyintheMiddleAges:HeroicTalesofMonsters,Magic,andMight,PraegerSeriesontheMiddleAges,SantaBarbara,California,Denver,Colorado,andOxford,England,ISBN 978-0-313-02725-3 Fontenrose,JosephEddy(1980)[1959],Python:AStudyofDelphicMythandItsOrigins,Berkeley,California,LosAngeles,California,andLondon,England:TheUniversityofCaliforniaPress,ISBN 0-520-04106-2 Friar,Stephen;Ferguson,John(1993),BasicHeraldry,NewYorkCity,NewYorkandLondon,England:W.W.Norton&Company,ISBN 0-393-03463-1 Garrett,ValeryM.ChineseDragonRobes.OxfordUniversityPress,1999.ISBN 0-195-90499-0. GiammancoFrongia,RosannaM.;Giorgi,Rosa;Zuffi,Stefano(2005).AngelsandDemonsinArt.LosAngeles:J.PaulGettyMuseum.ISBN 0-89236-830-6. Grasshoff,Gerd(1990),Toomer,Gerald(ed.),TheHistoryofPtolemy'sStarCatalogue,StudiesintheHistoryofMathematicsandPhysicalSciences,vol. 14,NewYorkCity,NewYork,Berlin,Germany,Heidelberg,Germany,London,England,Paris,France,Tokyo,Japan,andHongKong,China:Springer-Verlag,ISBN 978-1-4612-8788-9 Haimerl,Edgar(2013),"Sigurðr,aMedievalHero",inAcker,Paul;Larrington,Carolyne(eds.),RevisitingthePoeticEdda:EssaysonOldNorseHeroicLegend,NewYorkCity,NewYorkandLondon,England:Routledge,ISBN 978-0-203-09860-8 Hanlon,Tina(2003)."TheTamingofDragonsinTwentiethCenturyPictureBooks".JournaloftheFantasticintheArts.14:7–27. Hornung,Erik(2001),TheSecretLoreofEgypt:ItsImpactontheWest,Ithaca,NewYorkandLondon,England:CornellUniversityPress,ISBN 0-8014-3847-0 Hughes,Jonathan(2005),"PoliticsandtheOccultintheCourtofEdwardIV",inGosman,Martin;MacDonald,Alasdair;Vanderjagt,Arjo(eds.),PrincesandPrincelyCulture:1450-1650,Leiden,TheNetherlandsandBoston,Massachusetts:Brill,ISBN 90-04-13690-8 Ingersoll,Ernest;HenryFairfieldOsborn(2013).TheIllustratedBookofDragonsandDragonLore.ChiangMai,Thailand:CognoscentiBooks.ISBN 9781304112422. Johnsgard,PaulAustin;Johnsgard,Karin(1982).Dragonsandunicorns :anaturalhistory.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 0-312-21895-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22December2016.Retrieved22September2016. Jones,DavidE.(2000),AnInstinctforDragons,NewYorkCity,NewYorkandLondon,England:Routledge,ISBN 0-415-92721-8,archivedfromtheoriginalon27December2016,retrieved22September2016 Kelly,HenryAnsgar(2006),Satan:ABiography,Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0521604024 Kitowska-Łysiak,Małgorzata;Wolicka,Elżbieta(1999),Miejscerzeczywiste,miejscewyobrażone:studianadkategoriąmiejscawprzestrzenikultury,TowarzystwoNaukoweKatolickiegoUniwersytetuLubelskiego[ScientificSocietyoftheCatholicUniversityofLublin],ISBN 9788387703745 Littleton,C.Scott(2002).Mythology:TheIllustratedAnthologyofWorldMythandStorytelling.ThunderBayPress(CA).ISBN 1-57145-827-1. MacCulloch,J.A.(1998)[1948],TheCelticandScandinavianReligions,Chicago,Illinois:AcademyChicagoPublishers,ISBN 0-897-33-434-5 Mallory,J.P.;Adams,D.Q.(2006),TheOxfordIntroductiontoProto-Indo-EuropeanandtheProto-Indo-EuropeanWorld,Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2 Malone,MichaelS.(2012),TheGuardianofAllThings:TheEpicStoryofHumanMemory,NewYorkCity,NewYork:St.Martin'sPress,ISBN 978-1-250-01492-4 Mayor,Andrienne(2000),TheFirstFossilHunters:Dinosaurs,Mammoths,andMythinGreekandRomanTimes,Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN 0-691-05863-6 Mayor,Adrienne(2005),FossilLegendsoftheFirstAmericans,Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN 0-691-11345-9 Morgan,Giles(21January2009),StGeorge:Knight,Martyr,PatronSaintandDragonslayer,Edison,NewJersey:ChartwellBooks,Inc.,ISBN 978-0785822325 Manning-Sanders,Ruth(1977).ABookofDragons.London:Methuen.ISBN 0-416-58110-2. Nikolajeva,Maria(2012),"Thedevelopmentofchildren'sfantasy",inJames,Edward;Mendlesohn,Farah(eds.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoFantasyLiterature,Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress,pp. 50–61,ISBN 978-0-521-72873-7 Niles,Doug(2013),Dragons:TheMyths,Legends,andLore,Avon,Massachusetts:AdamsMedia,ISBN 978-1-4405-6216-7 Ogden,Daniel(2013),Drakon:DragonMythandSerpentCultintheAncientGreekandRomanWorlds,Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5 Osmond,Andrew(2002)."DragonsinFilm".Cinefantastique.Vol. 34.pp. 58–59. Phillips,WalterAlison(1911)."Dragon" .EncyclopædiaBritannica.Vol. 8(11th ed.).pp. 466–468. Rauer,Christine(2000),BeowulfandtheDragon:ParallelsandAnalogues,Cambridge,England:D.S.Brewer,ISBN 0-85991-592-1 Rożek,Michał(1988),Cracow:ATreasuryofPolishCultureandArt,Kraków,Poland:InterpressPublishers,p. 27,ISBN 9788322322451,archivedfromtheoriginalon12June2020,retrieved31March2018 Schwab,SandraMartina(2005)."Dragons".InGaryWestfahl(ed.).TheGreenwoodEncyclopediaofScienceFictionandFantasy:Themes,Works,andWonders.Vol. 1.Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress.pp. 214–216.ISBN 0-313-32951-6. Shuker,Karl(1995).Dragons:aNaturalHistory.NewYork:Simon&Schuster.ISBN 0-684-81443-9. Sikorski,Czesław(1997),"WoodPitchasCombatChemicalintheLightoftheJanDługosz'sAnnalsandSomeoftheOldPolishMilitaryTreatises",ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalSymposiumonWoodTarandPitch:235 Sherman,Josepha(2015)[2008],Storytelling:AnEncyclopediaofMythologyandFolklore,NewYorkCity,NewYorkandLondon,England:Routledge,ISBN 978-0-7656-8047-1 Swaddling,Judith(1989),TheAncientOlympicGames,London,England:BritishMuseumPress,ISBN 0-292-77751-5 Thurston,Herbert(1909),"St.George",TheCatholicEncyclopedia,vol. 6,NewYorkCity,NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,pp. 453–455,archivedfromtheoriginalon27April2019,retrieved25March2018 Unerman,Sandra(2000)."DragonsinFantasy".Vector(211):14–16. Visser,MarinusWillemde;TheDragoninChinaandJapanArchived28May2016attheWaybackMachine,Amsterdam,J.Müller1913. Volker,T.(1975)[1950],TheAnimalinFarEasternArt:AndEspeciallyintheArtoftheJapaneseNetsukewithReferencetoChineseOrigins,Traditions,Legends,andArt,Leiden,TheNetherlands:Brill,ISBN 90-04-04295-4 Walter,Christopher(2003),TheWarriorSaintsinByzantineArtandTradition,Farnham,England:AshgatePublishing,ISBN 9781840146943 West,MartinLitchfield(2007),Indo-EuropeanPoetryandMyth,Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9 Williamson,Jamie(2015),TheEvolutionofModernFantasy:FromAntiquarianismtotheBallantineAdultFantasySeries,NewYorkCity,NewYorkandBasingstoke,England,doi:10.1057/9781137515797,ISBN 978-1-137-51579-7 Yang,Lihui;An,Deming;Turner,JessicaAnderson(2005),HandbookofChineseMythology,HandbooksofWorldMythology,Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6 Externallinks[edit] MediarelatedtoDragonsatWikimediaCommons ThedictionarydefinitionofdragonatWiktionary QuotationsrelatedtoDragonsatWikiquote vteDragonsInmythologyEuropean Ajatar Amphiptere Balaur BisterneDragon 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