Lingam - Wikipedia

A lingam (Sanskrit: लिङ्ग IAST: liṅga, lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic ... Lingam FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Thisisthelatestacceptedrevision,reviewedon26August2022. Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch AniconicrepresentationoftheHindugodShiva "Linga"and"Shivling"redirecthere.Forotheruses,seeLinga(disambiguation)andShivling(disambiguation). AShivalingamwithtripundra Alingam(Sanskrit:लिङ्गIAST:liṅga,lit."sign,symbolormark"),sometimesreferredtoaslingaorShivalinga,isanabstractoraniconicrepresentationoftheHindugodShivainShaivism.[1]ItistypicallytheprimarymurtiordevotionalimageinHindutemplesdedicatedtoShiva,alsofoundinsmallershrines,orasself-manifestednaturalobjects.[2][3]Itisoftenrepresentedwithinadisc-shapedplatform,[1][4]theyoni–itsfemininecounterpart,[5][6]consistingofaflatelement,horizontalcomparedtotheverticallingam,anddesignedtoallowliquidofferingstodrainawayforcollection.Together,theysymbolizethemergingofmicrocosmosandmacrocosmos,[6]thedivineeternalprocessofcreationandregeneration,andtheunionofthefeminineandthemasculinethatrecreatesallofexistence.[7][8] Theoriginalmeaningoflingamas"sign"isusedinShvetashvataraUpanishad,whichsays"Shiva,theSupremeLord,hasnoliūga",liuga(Sanskrit:लि‌ऊगIAST:liūga)meaningheistranscendental,beyondanycharacteristicand,specifically,thesignofgender.[9][10]Lingamisregardedasthe"outwardsymbol"ofthe"formlessReality",thesymbolizationofmergingofthe'primordialmatter'(Prakṛti)withthe'pureconsciousness'(Purusha)intranscendentalcontext.[11] Themetaphoricalcreativeprincipleoflingam-yoni,theunionofthefeminineandthemasculine,theeternalcosmologicalprocessofcreationisalsodepictedinChinesephilosophyofYinandYang,[12][13]whereetymologicallyandsemanticallyYinrepresentsthefeminine,half-unityofconsciousnessandYangdenotesthemasculine,theotherhalf,togethersymbolizingtheentiretyorunity-consciousnessinthecreation.[12]Thelingamisconceptualizedbothasanemblemofgenerativeanddestructivepower,[7][14]particularlyintheesotericKaulaandTantrapractices,aswellastheShaivismandShaktismtraditionsofHinduism.[15] "Lingam"isfoundinSanskrittexts,suchasShvetashvataraUpanishad,Samkhya,Vaisheshikaandotherstextswiththemeaningof"evidence,proof"ofGodandGod'sexistence,[20]orexistenceofformlessBrahman.[21]LingamiconographyfoundatarchaeologicalsitesoftheIndiansubcontinentandsoutheastAsiaincludessimplecylinderssetinsideayoni;mukhalingaroundedpillarswithcarvingssuchasofoneormoremukha(faces);andanatomicallyrealisticrepresentationsofaphallussuchasatGudimallam.[note1][25]IntheShaivatraditions,thelingamisregardedasaformofspiritualiconography.[26][27][28] Contents 1Nomenclatureandsignificance 2History 2.1ArcheologicalfindsfromIndusValleycivilisation 2.2ShvetashvataraUpanishad 2.3LingaPurana 2.4Vedicliterature 2.5Earlyiconographyandtemples 2.6Mahabharata 2.7Puranas 2.8Otherliterature 2.9Muslimrule 2.10Orientalistliterature 3Iconographyandworship 4Lingayatism 5Pilgrimagesites 6Gallery 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 9.1Bibliography 10Externallinks Nomenclatureandsignificance[edit] LingamasinterpretedintheShaivaSiddhantatradition,amajorschoolofShaivism.TheupperandlowerpartsrepresentParashivaandParashaktiperfectionsofLordShiva. Lingam,statesMonierMonier-Williams,appearsintheUpanishadsandepicliterature,whereitmeansa"mark,sign,emblem,characteristic".[18][27]Othercontextualmeaningsoftheterminclude"evidence,proof,symptom"ofGodandGod'spower.[18][19]ThetermalsoappearsinearlyIndiantextsonlogic,whereaninferenceisbasedonasign(linga),suchas"ifthereissmoke,thereisfire"wherethelingaisthesmoke.[18]ItisareligioussymbolinHinduismrepresentingShivaasthegenerativepower,[27]allofexistence,allcreativityandfertilityateverycosmiclevel.[5][29] ThelingamoftheShaivismtraditionisashortcylindricalpillar-likesymbolofShiva,madeofstone,metal,gem,wood,clayorpreciousstones.[30][1][31]AccordingtoEncyclopædiaBritannica,thelingamisavotaryaniconicobjectfoundinthesanctumofShivatemplesandprivateshrinesthatsymbolizesShivaandis"reveredasanemblemofgenerativepower".[1]Itoftenisfoundwithinalipped,diskedstructurethatisanemblemofgoddessShaktiandthisiscalledtheyoni.Togethertheysymbolizetheunionofthefeminineandthemasculineprinciples,and"thetotalityofallexistence",statesEncyclopædiaBritannica.[1] AccordingtoAlexWayman,giventheShaivaphilosophicaltextsandspiritualinterpretations,variousworksonShaivismbysomeIndianauthors"denythatthelingaisaphallus".[26]TotheShaivites,alingaisneitheraphallusnordotheypracticetheworshipoferoticpenis-vulva,ratherthelinga-yoniisasymbolofcosmicmysteries,thecreativepowersandthemetaphorforthespiritualtruthsoftheirfaith.[32]Forexample,accordingtoSwamiSivananda,thecorelationofthelingaandphallusiswrong;theLingamisonlytheexternalsymbolofLordShiva'sformlessbeing.Hefurtherstatesthatitisthelightorpowerofconsciousness,manifestingfromSadashiva[33] ThepopularbeliefisthattheSivaLingamrepresentsthephallusorthevirileorgan,theemblemofthegenerativepowerorprincipleinnature.Thisisnotonlyaseriousmistakebutagraveblunder.Inthepost-Vedicperiod,theLingahasbecomesymbolicofthegenerativepowerofLordSiva.Lingaisthedifferentiatingmark.Isiscertainlynotthesexmark.[34] AccordingtoSivayaSubramuniyaswami,thelingamsignifiesthreeperfectionsofShiva.[35]TheupperovalpartoftheShivalingamrepresentParashivaandlowerpartoftheShivalingamcalledthepitharepresentsParashakti.[35]InParashivaperfection,Shivaistheabsolutereality,thetimeless,formlessandspaceless.InParashaktiperfection,Shivaisall-pervasive,pureconsciousness,powerandprimalsubstanceofallthatexistsandithasformunlikeParashivawhichisformless.[36][9] AccordingtoRohitDasgupta,thelingamsymbolizesShivainHinduism,anditisalsoaphallicsymbol.[5]Sincethe19th-century,statesDasgupta,thepopularliteraturehasrepresentedthelingamasthemalesexorgan.ThisviewcontrastswiththetraditionalabstractvaluestheyrepresentinShaivismwhereinthelingam-yoniconnotethemasculineandfeminineprinciplesintheentiretyofcreationandallexistence.[5] AccordingtoSivanandaSaraswati,SivaLingamspeaksunmistakablelanguageofsilence:"Iamonewithoutasecond,Iamformless".[37]SivaLingamisonlytheoutwardsymbolofformlessbeing,LordSiva,whoiseternal,ever-pure,immortalessenceofthisvastuniverse,whoisyourinnermostSelforAtman,andwhoisidenticalwiththeSupremeBrahman,statesSivanandaSaraswati.[37] Scholars,suchasWendyDonigerandRohitDasgupta,viewlingaasextrapolationsofwhatwasoriginallyaphallicsymbol.[38][39][40][41]ThisinterpretationiscriticizedbyStellaKramrisch[42]andMorizWinternitzwhoopinesthatthelingaintheShivatraditionis"onlyasymboloftheproductiveandcreativeprincipleofnatureasembodiedinShiva",andithasnohistoricaltraceinanyobscenephalliccult.[43] History[edit] ArcheologicalfindsfromIndusValleycivilisation[edit] StonelingamandyonipedestalfoundinCátTiên,Vietnam,circa8thcentury.At2.1metertall,thisisthelargestlingameverfoundinSoutheastAsia AccordingtoChakrabarti,"someofthestonesfoundinMohenjodaroareunmistakablyphallicstones".Thesearedatedtosometimebefore2300BCE.Similarly,statesChakrabarti,theKalibangansiteofHarappahasasmallterracottarepresentationthat"wouldundoubtedlybeconsideredthereplicaofamodernShivlinga[atubularstone]."[44]AccordingtoEncyclopædiaBritannica,whileHarappandiscoveriesinclude"shortcylindricalpillarswithroundedtops",thereisnoevidencethatthepeopleofIndusValleyCivilizationworshippedtheseartifactsaslingams.[1]AccordingtoSrinivasan,intheHarappansites,objectsthatresemble"lingam"havebeenfound.[45]Thatincludes"aseatedtrident-headedithyphallicfigure",whichwasfoundonIndusseals,"hasbeencomparedtoShivaasmeditatingascetic",statesSrinivasan.[45][46] ABuddhiststupa(above)mayhaveinfluencedthelatericonographyoftheHinduShiva-linga,accordingtoSwamiVivekananda.[47][note2] Thecolonial-eraarchaeologistsJohnMarshallandErnestMackayproposedthatcertainartifactsfoundatHarappansitesmaybeevidenceofyoni-lingaworshipinIndusValleyCivilization.[49]ScholarssuchasArthurLlewellynBashamdisputewhethersuchartifactsdiscoveredatthearchaeologicalsitesofIndusValleysitesareyoni.[49][50]Forexample,JonesandRyanstatethatlingam/yonishapeshavebeenrecoveredfromthearchaeologicalsitesatHarappaandMohenjo-daro,partoftheIndusValleycivilisation.[51][52]Incontrast,IndologistWendyDonigerstatesthatthisrelativelyrareartifactcanbeinterpretedinmanywaysandhasundulybeenusedforwildspeculationssuchasbeingalinga.AnotherIndusstampsealoftencalledthePashupatiseal,statesDoniger,hasanimagewithageneralresemblancewithShivaand"theInduspeoplemaywellhavecreatedthesymbolismofthedivinephallus",butgiventheavailableevidencewecannotbecertain,nordoweknowthatithadthesamemeaningassomecurrentlyprojectthemtomighthavemeant.[53] AccordingtotheIndologistAskoParpola,"itistruethatMarshall'sandMackay'shypothesesoflingaandyoniworshipbytheHarappanshasrestedonratherslendergrounds,andthatforinstance,theinterpretationoftheso-calledring-stonesasyonisseemsuntenable".[49]HequotesDales1984paper,whichstates"withthesingleexceptionoftheunidentifiedphotographyofarealisticphallicobjectinMarshall'sreport,thereisnoarchaeologicalevidencetosupportclaimsofspecialsexually-orientedaspectsofHarappanreligion".[49]However,addsParpola,are-examinationatIndusValleysitessuggestthattheMackay'shypothesiscannotberuledoutbecauseeroticandsexualscenessuchasithyphallicmales,nakedfemales,ahumancouplehavingintercourseandtrefoilimprintshavenowbeenidentifiedattheHarappansites.[49]The"finelypolishedcircularstand"foundbyMackaymaybeyonialthoughitwasfoundwithoutthelinga.Theabsenceoflinga,statesParpola,maybebecauseitwasmadefromwoodwhichdidnotsurvive.[49] ShvetashvataraUpanishad[edit] ShvetashvataraUpanishadstatesoneofthethreesignifications,theprimaryone,ofLingamas"theimperishablePurusha",theabsolutereality,[10]wheresaysthelingaas"sign",amarkthatprovidestheexistenceofBrahman,[9][54]orsymbolofformlessBrahman.[21]Furthermore,itmentionedthatShivaistranscendent,beyondanycharacteristicorliūga,specifically,thesignofgender.[9]Linga,"sign",notonlysignifiestheexistenceofperceptible"things"butalsodenotestheimperceptibleessenceof"athing"orpiecesofBrahmancalledAtma[54]evenbeforethethinginitsconcreteshapehascometoexist.[note3]Theimperceptibleessenceof"athing",initspotentiality,istheliūgaofthething.[9]TheinsightoftheShvetashvataraUpanishadconveyedthroughthewordliūgaisformulatedexplicitlyinSamkhyaandschoolsofYogaorwaysoflookingatthings,thatis,lookingattheirappearanceandatUltimateReality.[9]LirigaheredenotestheSubtlebody(liṇgaśarīra)underlyingandontologicalprecedinganythingperceptible.[9]Theperceptiblestate,inthiscontext,isthegrossbody(sthūlaśarīra),orconcreterealityasitappearstothesenseorgans.InbetweentheUltimateandconcreterealityisPrakṛti,alsocalledPradhana[9]whichistheimperceptiblesubstratumofthemanifestworldorprematter.[55]Outofthisimperceptiblecosmicsubstance,allthingshavecomeout,andtowhichtheywillreturnultimately.[9] ThethreeGunasareSattva,Rajas,andTamas.ThefunctionastendenciesthroughtheprinciplesandpowersofcosmicsubstancecohereareBuddhi,"cosmicintelligenceorrevelation";Ahamkara,"individuation";andManas,"Mind".Fromtheseevolvethepower(Indriya)ofcognitionthatenableshearing,feeling,seeing,tasting,andsmellingandtheircorrespondingsubtleelementstoexist.[9]Fromthesesupersensible(Tanmatras),thesenseparticulars(Mahābhūta)comeintobeing.[9]TheyareEtherorspace(Akasha),air(Vayu),fire(Agni),water(Ap),andearth(Bhumi),thePanchaBhootas.[56][57]TheyarethevehiclesoftheTanmatras,andconstitutethegrossbodyofconcrete,perceptible,andparticularizedreality.TheSubtlebody(liṇgaśarīra)isthesubtleprototypeofthegrossbody,theimperceptiblestuffofenergybywhichallphenomenaareprojectedintoconcretereality,likefirefromitslatency.[56]Thesubtlebody,itselfchangeless,accompaniesthelife-of-the-individual(Jiva)throughthecyclesofbirthanddeathsandisfinallyreabsorbedintotheprinciplesandpowersofwhichitwascomposedof.[56] LingaPurana[edit] TheLingaPuranastates,"Shivaissignless,withoutcolor,taste,smell,thatisbeyondwordortouch,withoutquality,motionlessandchangeless".[58]Thesourceoftheuniverseisthesignless,andalloftheuniverseisthemanifestedLinga,aunionofunchangingprincipleandtheeverchangingnature.[58]TheLingaPuranaandSivaGitatextsbuildsonthisfoundation.[59][60]Linga,statesAlainDaniélou,meanssign.[58]ItisanimportantconceptinHindutexts,whereinLingaisamanifestedsignandnatureofsomeoneorsomething.ItaccompaniestheconceptofBrahman,whichasinvisiblesignlessandexistentPrinciple,isformlessorlinga-less.[58] Vedicliterature[edit] ThewordlingamisnotfoundintheRigveda,[61]ortheotherVedas.[62]However,Rudra(proto-Shiva)isfoundintheVedicliterature.[61][63]WorshipofthelingamwasnotapartoftheVedicreligion.TheworshipofthelingamoriginatedfromthefamoushymnintheAtharvaVedaSamhitasunginpraiseoftheYupa-Stambha,thesacrificialpost.Inthathymn,adescriptionisfoundofthebeginninglessandendlessStambhaorSkambha,anditisshownthatthesaidSkambhaisputinplaceoftheeternalBrahman.JustastheYajna(sacrificial)fire,itssmoke,ashes,andflames,theSomaplant,andtheoxthatusedtocarryonitsbackthewoodfortheVedicsacrificegaveplacetotheconceptionsofthebrightnessofShiva'sbody,histawnymattedhair,hisbluethroat,andtheridingonthebulloftheShiva,theYupa-SkambhagaveplaceintimetotheShiva-Linga.[64][65]InthetextLingaPurana,thesamehymnisexpandedintheshapeofstories,meanttoestablishthegloryofthegreatStambhaandthesuperiorityofShivaasMahadeva.[65] ThereisahymnintheAtharvavedathatpraisesapillar(stambha),andthisisonepossibleoriginoflingaworship.[66]AccordingtoSwamiVivekananda,theShiva-lingahadoriginsintheideaofYupa-StambhaorSkambhaoftheVedicrituals,wherethetermmeantthesacrificialpostwhichwasthenidealizedastheeternalBrahman.TheYupa-SkambhagaveplaceintimetotheShiva-Linga,quitepossiblywithinfluencefromBuddhism'sstupashapedlikethetopofastonelinga,accordingtoVivekananda.[47][65] Earlyiconographyandtemples[edit] GudimallamLingam(AndhraPradesh)hasbeendatedtobetweenthe3rdand1stcenturyBCE.Thephallicpillar[note1]isanatomicallyaccurateanddepictsShivawithanantelopeandaxeinhishandsstandingoveradwarfdemon.[67] TheGudimallamLingam,oneoftheoldestexamplesofalingam,isstillinworshipintheParashurameshwaratemple,Gudimallam,inahillyforestabout20kilometres(12 mi)eastofTirupatiinAndhraPradesh.[68]Ithasbeendatedtothe3rd-centuryBCE,[1]ortothe2nd centuryBCE,[23]andismostlyacceptedtobefromthe3rd-to1st-centuryBCE,[67]thoughsomelaterdateshavebeenproposed.Thestonelingamisclearlyarepresentationofananatomicallyaccuratephallus,withafigureofLakulisha,theasceticmanifestationofShiva,[45]carvedonthefront,holdinganantelopeandaxeinhishands.[67][69]HestandsontopofaApasmara(demon)dwarf,whosymbolizesspiritualignorance,greed,sensualdesiresorKamaandnonsensicalspeechonthespiritualpath,hencemustbesubduedinspiritualpursuits.[70][71][72] Inthisearliestrepresentation,thephallicrepresentationillustratesofthecentralityoftheenergeticprincipleofUrdhvaRetas(Sanskrit:ऊर्ध्वरेतस्IAST:Ūrdhvaretas,lit."ascentofvitalenergiesorfluid")theupwardflowofenergyinspiritualpursuitsandpracticeofcelibacy(Brahmacarya),[73]contrarytofertilityorreleaseofvitalenergies.[74][75][76][77][78]LakulisaasanasceticmanifestationofShivaisseeninlaterpeninsularIndianscriptureswhoseithyphallicaspectsconnotesasceticismandconservedprocreativepotentialities(Brahmacaryaorcelibacy),ratherthanmereeroticism.[45][79]AccordingtoStellaKramrisch,thepictorialsymboloftheGudimallamlingamshouldnotbemistakenforfertilityorsexualityduetoincompleteorimpureunderstandingoftheunderlyingrefinedprinciples.[note4][81] TheBhitalinga–nowattheLucknowmuseum–isalsodatedtoaboutthe2ndcenturyBCE,andhasfourdirectionalfacesonthepillarandaBrahmiscriptinscriptionatthebottom.[82][83][84]Abovethefourfaces,theBhitalingahasthebustofamalewithhislefthandholdingavaseandtherighthandintheabhaya(no-fear)mudra.[83][note5]Thepillaritselfis,onceagain,arealisticdepictionofphallusbutneithersymbolizesfertilitynorsexuality,buttherefinedenergeticprinciplesofUrdhvaRetas[note6]duringSannyasaorAsceticism.[76][74][77][83][78] LingamfromAngkorperiodondisplayattheNationalMuseumofCambodia.DiscoveredinBattambangProvince(Cambodia),itismadeofbronze,quartzandsilver. TheMathuraarchaeologicalsitehasrevealedsimilarlingams,withastandingShivainfront(2ndcenturyCE)andwithoneorfourfacesaroundthepillar(1stto3rdcenturyCE).[87][88] Numerousstoneandcavetemplesfromthemidtolate1stmillenniumfeaturelingams.TheBhumaraTemplenearSatnaMadhyaPradesh,forexample,isgenerallydatedtolate5th-centuryGuptaEmpireera,anditfeaturesanEkamukhaLingam.[89][90] Mahabharata[edit] AccordingtoWendyDoniger,lingamintheMahabharataisrepresentedasthephallicformwhichsuggestsSthulasariraofShiva,[67][91]althoughnottheprimarysignificance,[9]howeveritconnotesmuchmorethanthat.[56]Theanthropomorphicshape,inthisspecificcontext,functionsasthe"subtlebody"(LińgaŚarīra)[92]ofShivaintheMahabharata.[56]Itisasuperabundantevocationoffiercepotencyonacosmicscale,althoughitstatescrasslyphallic.[56]DonigerfurtherfindsthatShivawascalledbymanynames,includingRudraortheLordoftheMountain.[67]Chapter10.17oftheMahabharataalsoreferstothewordsthanuinthesenseofan"inanimatepillar"aswellasa"nameofShiva,signifyingtheimmobile,ascetic,desexualizedformofthelingam",asitrecitesthelegendinvolvingShiva,BrahmaandPrajapati.[67][93]Thismythologyweavestwopolarities,onewherethelingamrepresentsthepotentiallyprocreativephallus(fertilelingam)anditsopposite"apillar-likerenouncerofsexuality"(asceticlingam),statesDoniger.[67] Puranas[edit] AccordingtoShivaPurana,thelegendabouttheoriginofthephallicformofShivaisthatsomebrahmindevoteesofShivawerehighlyengrossedinthemeditationofShiva.Inthemeantime,Shivacameinahideousnakedasceticformwithashessmearedalloverhisbodyholdinghisphallus,totestthedevotionofhisdevotees.Thewivesofthesageswerescaredatthissightbutsomeembracedtheholyascetic.AlthoughShivaputthemtotest,thesagesandwivesdidnotrecognizehim.[94]ThesageswerestupefiedanddeludedbyŚiva'spowerofillusion,māyā,[94][95]becameinfuriatedatthissightandcursedasceticformofShiva[95] “Youareactingpervertedly.ThisviolatestheVedicpath.Henceletyourpenisfallontheground.” Althoughthesageswerealsoascetics,onlybecausetheyobservedestablishedconventions,theyfailedwhenShivatestedthemwithhisoutrageousways.[94]ThepurposeofShiva'svisittothehermitage,theplacewherethesageswerelivingwiththeirwives,wastoenlightenthefalsesagesbyallowingthemtohumiliatehim.[96]Butthesageswerelostinanger,butShivaallowedhimselftobehumiliatedintheimagethatmettheeyeofthesages.[96]EventhoughShivaexcitedsomeofthemasthesourceoftheirdesire,theywereunabletoseehimasthekillerofdesires.[97]AlthoughShivarevealedhistruenaturebyhisdance(Tandava),yetsogreatwashispowerofillusion(māyā),thedeludedsagesdidnotrecognizehim.[97]Thatfallingphallusburnteverythinginfront;whereveritwentitbegantoburneverythingthere.ItwenttoallthreeHinduworlds(hell,heaven,earth).Alltheworldsandthepeopleweredistressed.Thesagescouldn'trecogniseitasShivaandsoughtrefugefromBrahma. BrahmaansweredthattheyshouldpraytoParvatitoassumeaformofvaginalpassage,andperformaprocedurerecitingvedicmantrasanddecoratingthepeniswithflowersetc.,sothatthepeniswouldbecomesteady.AsthephalluswasheldbyParvatiinthatform,anauspicionarrowformed.ThepedestalshapedasthevaginaandthephallusfixedthereinaresymbolicoftheeternalcreativeforcespersonifiedasŚivāandŚiva.Aftertheprocedurewascompleted,thepenisbecamestatic.Thisphalluswasknownas"hatesa"and"SivaSiva".[95]InoneversionofthestoryfoundinVamanaPurana,Shiva'svisittothehermitageinDeodarforestswasanactofgraceatParvati'srequest.[94] LingodbhavaisaShaivasectarianiconwhereShivaisdepictedrisingfromtheLingam(aninfinitefierypillar)thatnarrateshowShivaistheforemostoftheTrimurti;BrahmaontheleftandVishnuontherightaredepictedbowingtoShivainthecentre. TheShivaPuranaalsodescribestheoriginofthelingam,knownasShiva-linga,asthebeginning-lessandendlesscosmicpillar(Stambha)offire,thecauseofallcauses.Shivaispicturedasemergingfromthelingam –thecosmicpillaroffire –provinghissuperiorityoverthegodsBrahmaandVishnu.ItalsodescribesrightwaytoworshipShivalingainits11thchapterindetail[98][99][100]ThisisknownasLingodbhava.TheLingaPuranaalsosupportsthisinterpretationoflingamasacosmicpillar,symbolizingtheinfinitenatureofShiva.[100][47][65]AccordingtotheLingaPurana,thelingamisacompletesymbolicrepresentationoftheformlessUniverseBearer –theoval-shapedstoneisthesymboloftheUniverse,andthebottombaserepresentstheSupremePowerthatholdstheentireUniverseinit.[37]AsimilarinterpretationisalsofoundintheSkandaPurana:"Theendlesssky(thatgreatvoidwhichcontainstheentireuniverse)istheLinga,theEarthisitsbase.AttheendoftimetheentireuniverseandalltheGodsfinallymergeintheLingaitself."[101]IntheLingaPurana,anAtharvavedahymnisexpandedwithstoriesaboutthegreatStambhaandthesupremenatureofMahâdeva(theGreatGod,Shiva).[65] Otherliterature[edit] Alinga-yoniinNepalcarvedwithfourseatedBuddhas. InearlySanskritmedicaltexts,lingameans"symptom,signs"andplaysakeyroleinthediagnosisofasickness,thedisease.[102][103][104]TheauthorofclassicalSanskritgrammartreatise,Panini,statesthattheverbalrootlingwhichmeans"paint,variegate",hasthesense"thatwhichpaints,variegates,characterizes".PaniniaswellasPatanjaliadditionallymentionlingamwiththecontextualmeaningofthe"gender".[105][106] IntheVaisheshikaSutras,itmeans"prooforevidence",asaconditionallysufficientmarkorsign.ThisVaisheshikatheoryisadoptedintheearlySanskritmedicalliterature.[16]LiketheUpanishads,wherelingameans"mark,sign,characteristic",thetextsoftheNyayaschoolofHinduphilosophyuselingainthesamesense.[107][108]IntheSamkhyasutras,andinGaudapada'scommentaryonSamkhyakarika,thetermlingahasmanycontextualmeaningssuchasinverses1.124.136,3.9.16and5.21.61,asitdevelopsitstheoryofthenatureofAtman(Self)andSarira(body,prakriti)anditsproposedmechanismofrebirth.[17][109]InthePurvaMimamsaSutraandtheVedantasutra,aswellasthecommentariesonthem,thetermlingaappearsquiteoften,particularlyintheformof"lingadarsanacca"asaformofcitingorreferencingpriorHinduliterature.Thisphraseconnotes"[wehavefoundan]indicativesign",suchasthe"indicativesignisinaVedicpassage".[110] AccordingtoDoniger,thereispersuasiveevidenceinlaterSanskritliteraturethattheearlyIndiansassociatedthelingamiconwiththemalesexualorgan;[111]the11th-centuryKashmirtextNarmamalabyKshemendraonsatireandfictionwritingexplainshisideasonparallelismwithdivinelingamandhumanlingaminasexualcontext.VariousShaivatexts,suchastheSkandaPuranainsection1.8statesthatallcreatureshavethesignsofShivaorShaktithroughtheirlingam(malesexualorgan)orpindi(femalesexualorgan).[111][112]AccordingtoDoniger,apartoftheliteraturecorpusregardslingamtobethephallusofShiva,whileanothergroupoftextsdoesnot.Sexualityintheformerisinherentlysacredandspiritual,whilethelatteremphasizestheasceticnatureofShivaandrenunciationtobespiritualsymbolismoflingam.Thistensionbetweenthepursuitofspiritualitythroughhouseholderlifestyleandthepursuitofrenunciatesannyasilifestyleishistoric,reflectsthedifferentinterpretationsofthelingamandwhatlingamworshipmeanstoitsdevotees.ItremainsacontinuingdebatewithinHinduismtothisday,statesDoniger.[111]Toonegroup,itisapartofShiva'sbodyandsymbolicallysagunaShiva(heinaphysicalformwithattributes).Totheothergroup,itisanabstractsymbolofnirgunaShiva(heintheuniversalAbsoluteReality,formless,withoutattributes).[111]InTamilShaivatradition,forexample,thecommontermforlingamiskuRior"sign,mark"whichisasexual.[111]Similarly,inLingayatismtradition,thelingamisaspiritualsymboland"wasneversaidtohaveanysexualconnotations",accordingtoDoniger.[111]TosomeShaivites,itsymbolizestheaxisoftheuniverse.[113] ThetermlingaalsoappearsinBuddhistandJainaliterature,whereitmeans"sign,evidence"inonecontext,or"subtlebody"withsexualconnotationsinanother.[114][note7] Muslimrule[edit] Inthe11th-century,afterconquestsofthesubcontinentbyMuslimrulers,severalsultansofDelhi,ofteniconoclastic,regardedthelingamassexualandanthropomorphic,andorderedasmanybedestroyedaspossible.[115]Insomesituations,lingaweredeliberatelylaidatthethresholdsofmosquesforpublicusageandincorporatedintoIslamicarchitecture,notablyatamosqueinBanbhore.[116] Orientalistliterature[edit] PartofaseriesonShaivism DeitiesParamashiva(Supremebeing) Shiva Sadasiva Bhairava Rudra Virabhadra Shakti Parvati Sati Durga Kali(Allareone) Ganesha Murugan Sastha Shivaforms Others Scripturesandtexts Vedas Agama-Tantras Shivasutras Tirumurai Vachanas Svetasvatara Philosophy ThreeComponents Pati Pashu Pasam Threebondages Anava Karma Maya otheraspects 36Tattvas Yoga Satkaryavada Abhasavada Svatantrya Aham Practices Vibhuti Rudraksha Panchakshara Bilva MahaShivaratri Yamas-Niyamas Guru-Linga-Jangam Schools Atimarga Pashupata Kalamukha Kapalika Mantramarga Saiddhantika Siddhantism Non-Saiddhantika KashmirShaivism Pratyabhijna Vama Dakshina Kaula:Trika-Yamala-Kubjika-Netra Others Nath Inchegeri Veerashaiva/Lingayatism Siddharism Sroutaism Aghori Indonesian Scholars Lakulisha Abhinavagupta Vasugupta Utpaladeva Nayanars Manikkavacakar Meykandar Nirartha Basava Sharana Srikantha Appayya Navnath Related Nandi Tantrism Bhakti Jyotirlinga ShivaTemples  Hinduismportalvte ThecolonialeraOrientalistsandChristianmissionaries,raisedintheVictorianmoldwheresexandsexualimagerywereataboosubject,wereshockedbyandwerehostiletothelingam-yoniiconographyandreverencetheywitnessed.[5][117][118]The19thandearly20th-centurycolonialandmissionaryliteraturedescribedlingam-yoni,andrelatedtheologyasobscene,corrupt,licentious,hyper-sexualized,puerile,impure,demonicandaculturethathadbecometoofeminineanddissolute.[5][119][120]TotheHindus,particularlytheShaivites,theseiconsandideasweretheabstract,asymboloftheentiretyofcreationandspirituality.[5]ThecolonialdisparagementinparttriggeredtheoppositereactionfromBengalinationalists,whomoreexplicitlyvalorisedthefeminine.SwamiVivekanandacalledfortherevivaloftheMotherGoddessasafeminineforce,invitinghiscountrymento"proclaimhertoalltheworldwiththevoiceofpeaceandbenediction".[119] AccordingtoWendyDoniger,thetermslingamandyonibecameexplicitlyassociatedwithhumansexualorgansinthewesternimaginationafterthewidelypopularfirstKamasutratranslationbySirRichardBurtonin1883.[121]Inhistranslation,eventhoughtheoriginalSanskrittextdoesnotusethewordslingamoryoniforsexualorgans,andalmostalwaysusesotherterms,BurtonadroitlyavoidedbeingviewedasobscenetotheVictorianmindsetbyavoidingtheuseofwordssuchaspenis,vulva,vaginaandotherdirectorindirectsexualtermsintheSanskrittexttodiscusssex,sexualrelationshipsandhumansexualpositions.Burtonusedthetermslingamandyoniinsteadthroughoutthetranslation.[121]Thisconsciousandincorrectwordsubstitution,statesDoniger,thusservedasanOrientalistmeansto"anthropologizesex,distanceit,makeitsafeforEnglishreadersbyassuringthem,orpretendingtoassurethem,thatthetextwasnotaboutrealsexualorgans,theirsexualorgans,butmerelyabouttheappendagesofweird,darkpeoplefaraway."[121]SimilarOrientalistliteratureoftheChristianmissionariesandtheBritishera,statesDoniger,strippedallspiritualmeaningsandinsistedontheVictorianvulgarinterpretationonly,whichhad"anegativeeffectontheself-perceptionthatHindushadoftheirownbodies"andtheybecame"ashamedofthemoresensualaspectsoftheirownreligiousliterature".[122]SomecontemporaryHindus,statesDoniger,intheirpassiontospiritualizeHinduismandfortheirHindutvacampaignhavesoughttosanitizethehistoricearthlysexualmeanings,andinsistontheabstractspiritualmeaningonly.[122] Iconographyandworship[edit] Linga-yoniworshipindifferentways;Left:river,Right:temple. ThetraditionallingamritualsinmajorShivatemplesincludesofferingsofflowers,grass,driedrice,fruits,leaves,waterandamilkbath.[1]Priestschanthymns,whilethedevoteesgotothesanctumforadarshanafollowedbyaclockwisecircumambulationofthesanctum.[1]Onthesanctumwalls,typicallyarereliefsofDakshinamurti,BrahmaandVishnu.Often,nearthesanctumareothershrines,particularlyforShakti(Durga),GaneshaandMurugan(Kartikeya).IntheHindutradition,specialpilgrimagesitesincludethosewherenaturallingamsarefoundintheformofcylindricalrocksoriceorrockyhill.ThesearecalledSvayambhuvalingam,andabout70oftheseareknownontheIndiansubcontinent,themostsignificantbeingoneinKashi(Varanasi)followedbyPrayaga,NaimishaandGaya.[1][123] Thehistoriclingamiconographyhasincluded: Mukhalingam,wherethelingamhasthefaceofShivacarvedonit.[124][125]AnEkmukhalingamhasjustoneface,Chaturmukhalingamhasfourfacesinthecardinaldirections,whileaPanchamukhalingamhasatotaloffive(thefifthisonthetop)andrepresentsSadashiva.[126][127]Amongthemukha-lingamvarieties,thefourfaceversionaremorecommon.[128] Ashtottara-satalinga,where108miniaturelingasarecarvedonthepujabhaga(mainlinga)followingcertaingeometricprinciples.[129] Lingamiconographyexistsinmanyforms,andtheirdesignaredescribedintheAgamatexts.Left:a5th-centuryMukha-linga(withface),Right:aSahasra-linga(with1001carvings). Sahasralinga,where1001miniaturelingasarecarvedonthepujabhaga(mainlinga)followingcertaingeometricprinciples(setin99verticallines,11horizontal).[130] Dharalinga,wherelingashavefivetosixtyfourflutedfacets,withprimenumbersandmultiplesoffourparticularlyfavored.[131] Lingodbhavamurti,whereShivaisseenasemergingfromwithinafierylingam.[1]OntopofthisiconissometimesareliefofaswanorgooserepresentingBrahma,andaboaratthebottomrepresentingtheVarahaavatarofVishnu.ThisreflectstheShaivalegenddescribingacompetitionbetweenBrahma,ShivaandVishnu,astowhohaspriorityandsuperiority.[1] Alingammaybemadeofclay(mrinmaya),metal(lohaja),preciousstone(ratnaja),wood(daruja),stone(sailaja,mostcommon),oradisposalmaterial(kshanika).[31]Theconstructionmethod,proportionsanddesignisdescribedinShaivaAgamatexts.[31]Thelingamistypicallysetinthecenterofapindika(alsocalledyoniorpithas,symbolizingShakti).Apindikamaybecircular,square,octagonal,hexagonal,duodecagonal,sixteensided,elliptical,triangularoranothershape.[132]Somelingamsareminiaturizedandtheyarecarriedonone'sperson,suchasbyLingayatsinanecklace.Thesearecalledchala-lingams.[31]TheHindutempledesignmanualsrecommendgeometricratiosforthelinga,thesanctumandthevariousarchitecturalfeaturesofthetempleaccordingtocertainmathematicalrulesitconsidersperfectandsacred.[133]AnthropologistChristopherJohnFullerstatesthatalthoughmostsculptedimages(murtis)areanthropomorphicortheriomorphic,theaniconicShivaLingaisanimportantexception.[134] AccordingtoShaivaSiddhanta,thelingaistheidealsubstrateinwhichtheworshippershouldinstallandworshipthefive-facedandten-armedSadāśiva,theformofShivawhoisthefocaldivinityofthatschoolofShaivism.[135] ThevariousstylesoflingamiconographyarefoundontheIndiansubcontinentandsoutheastAsia.[136][137] Lingayatism[edit] Anecklacewithlinga-containingpendantisconstantlywornbytheLingayats.[138] Lingayats,asectoftheShaivitereligioustraditioninIndia,wearaminiaturizedlingacalledtheistalinga.[139]Lingayatswearalingaminsideanecklace,calledIshtalinga.[140][141]InitiallyknownasVeerashaivas(heroicworshippersofShiva),sincethe18thcenturyadherentsofthisfaithareknownasLingayats.[142]ThistraditionoriginatedinKarnatakaaroundthe12th-century.[140][143]Lingayatismisderivedfromthetermlingaandsuffixayta.[144]ThetermLingayatisbasedonthepracticeofbothgendersofLingayatswearinganiṣṭaliṅga(alsocalledkarasthala-linga)containedinsideaboxwithanecklaceallthetime.Theistalingaisapersonalizedandminiatureoval-shapedlingaandanemblemoftheirfaithsymbolisingParashiva,theabsoluterealityandtheirspirituality.[144][145]Itisviewedasa"living,moving"divinitywithintheLingayatdevotee.Everyday,thedevoteeremovesthispersonallingafromitsbox,placesitinleftpalm,offerspujaandthenmeditatesaboutbecomingonewiththelinga,inhisorherjourneytowardstheatma-linga.[146] Pilgrimagesites[edit] AnicelingamatAmarnathinthewesternHimalayasformseverywinterfromicedrippingonthefloorofacaveandfreezinglikeastalagmite.Itisverypopularwithpilgrims.[147] Left:2sphatika(quartz)lingamsintheShriParkasheshwarMahadevTemple,Dehradun;Right:IceLingaminthecaveattheAmarnathTemple,Kashmir. InKadavulTemple,a700-pound,3-foot-tall,naturallyformedSphatika(quartz)lingamisinstalled.Inthefuture,thiscrystallingamwillbehousedintheIraivanTemple.Itisclaimedasamongthelargestknownsphatikaselfformed(Swayambhu)lingams.[148][149]HinduscriptureratescrystalasthehighestformofSivalingam.[150] Shivling,6,543metres(21,467 ft),isamountaininUttarakhand(theGarhwalregionofHimalayas).ItarisesasasheerpyramidabovethesnoutoftheGangotriGlacier.ThemountainresemblesaShivalingamwhenviewedfromcertainangles,especiallywhentravellingortrekkingfromGangotritoGomukhaspartofatraditionalHindupilgrimage.[citationneeded] Alingamisalsothebasisfortheformationlegend(andname)oftheBorraCavesinAndhraPradesh.[citationneeded] BanalingaarethelingamwhicharefoundonthebedoftheNarmadariver.[citationneeded] LesserknownBhooteshwarnathMahadevainGariabanddistrictofChhattisgarhisarockShivlingaandsaidtobetheLargestNaturalShivlingaintheworld.,[151]whoseheightisincreasingwitheachpassingyear.[152][153] ThetallestShivalingamintheworldislocatedatChenkalvillageinThiruvananthapuramdistrictinthestateofKerala,India.[154] Gallery[edit] Lingainsidearailing(left),beingworshippedbyGandharvaswingedcreatures.ArtofMathura,circa100BCE.[155] ShivaLingaworshippedbyKushandevotees,circa2ndcenturyCE Lingodbhava(Cholaperiod) Lingodbhava(Cholaperiod) Badavlinga,Hampi(VijayanagaraEmpire) 8facedShivlingaminPashupatinathTempleatMandsaur,MadhyaPradesh Naturalrocklinga,ArunachalPradesh A10th-centuryfour-faceMukhalinga,Nepal Sixtyfourlingams(Nepal) An11th-centurylinga-yoniplaquewithaworshipper(Nepal) LingamfromAngkorperiod,BattambangProvince(Cambodia) Linga-yoni,Java(Indonesia) CopperlingamattheCátTiênsanctuary,Vietnam Ajatalingawithyoni(Champa,Vietnam) AlingamattheKatasRajTemplesinnorthPakistan GaneshaandShiva-linga,ChiangRai,Thailand Seealso[edit] Banalinga Hinduiconography Jyotirlinga Lingayatism Mukhalingaj GudimallamLingam Pancharamas Shaligram SpatikaLingam Notes[edit] ^ab KramrischclaimsthattherepresentationofthephallicshapeintheGudimallamLingamdoesnotrepresentsexuality.[156]Itrepresents"seminalretention"andpracticeofcelibacy(Brahmacarya)(illustrationofUrdhvaRetas),[76][74][86][157]andrepresentsShivaas"hestandsforcompletecontrolofthesenses,andforthesupremecarnalrenunciation".[156] ^ThisviewissharedbyK.R.Subramanian,whowritesthatsomeBuddhiststupashavebeenworshippedbyTamilSaivitesbecausetheybelieveitisaShivalinga,andsomeancientstupasculpturesfromAmaravatiandJaggayyapetalooksomuchlikealingathatanyonewouldmistakethemforone.[48] ^Theformoffire,whichexistsinthekindlingstickinalatentform,maynotbeseen,yetitslingaisnotdestroyedbutbeseizedagainbyanotherkindlingstick.[9]Fireinitslatentcondition,unkindled,thepotentialoffire,itsimperceptibleessence,istheliūgaoffire,incontrastwithandindispensabletoitsvisibleform(Rūpa).[9] ^Furthermore,thephallicshape,standingerect,alwaysnegatesitsfunctionasanorganofprocreation.Rather,theshapeorpictorialrepresentationisconveyingthat,theseedwaschanneledupward,notejectedforthesakeofgeneration,butwasreversed,retainedandabsorbedforregenerationascreativeenergy.[80] ^Thislingaislikelyadedicationmemorialstoneaccordingtotheinscriptionwhichstates,"TheLingaofthesonsofKhajahuti,wasdedicatedbyNagasiri,thesonofVasethi.Maythedeitybepleased."[83]Blochobjectedto"Lingaofthesons"interpretation,statingitmadenosense.Otherscholarsmaintainthattobeacrypticepigraphicreferenceto"worshippedby",giventhementionof"deity"laterintheinscription.[84][85] ^Inthepracticeofseminalretentionthroughself-disciplineandSādhanā,themindisstirred,butnotbyexternalstimuli,buttheresultofrealisationoftruenatureoftheSelfinthepathofliberation(moksha).However,duetolackofunderstandingoftheiconographyofLingam,therepresentationisoftenmisunderstood.[86][74] ^ExamplesofthisusageincludetheLaṅkāvatāraSūtrainBuddhism,andSukhlalji'sbhasyaonTattvarthasutrainJainism.[114] References[edit] ^abcdefghijklm"lingam".EncyclopædiaBritannica.2010. ^Johnson,W.J.(2009).AdictionaryofHinduism(1st ed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780191726705.Retrieved5January2016.(subscriptionorUKpubliclibrarymembershiprequired) ^Fowler,Jeaneane(1997).Hinduism:beliefsandpractices.Brighton[u.a.]:SussexAcad.Press.pp. 42–43.ISBN 9781898723608. ^DancingwithSiva.USA.1999.ISBN 9780945497943. ^abcdefgRohitDasgupta(26September2014).MichaelKimmel;ChristineMilrod;AmandaKennedy(eds.).CulturalEncyclopediaofthePenis.Rowman&Littlefield.p. 107.ISBN 9780759123144. ^abBeltz,Johannes(1March2011)."TheDancingShiva:SouthIndianProcessionalBronze,MuseumArtwork,andUniversalIcon".JournalofReligioninEurope.BrillAcademicPublishers.4(1):204–222.doi:10.1163/187489210x553566.S2CID 143631560. ^abDoniger,Wendy;Stefon,Matt(24December2014)[20July1998]."Lingam(Hinduism)".EncyclopædiaBritannica.Edinburgh:EncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.Retrieved22May2021. ^JamesG.Lochtefeld(2001).TheIllustratedEncyclopediaofHinduism,Volume2.TheRosenPublishingGroup.p. 784.ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4. ^abcdefghijklmnoKramrisch1994,p. 221. ^abConstance&James2006,p. 410. ^Grimes1996,p. 175-176. ^abZijiangDing,John(2009)."IndianYoni-LingaandChineseYin-Yang".JournalofPhilosophy:ACross-DisciplinaryInquiry.Vol. 4.SocietyforPhilosophyandLiteraryStudiesofNepal.pp. 20–26.doi:10.5840/jphilnepal2009483. ^Mahdihassan1989,p. 248. ^Constance&James2006,p. 260-261. ^Constance&James2006,p. 515-517. ^abGerritJanMeulenbeld;D.Wujastyk(2001).StudiesonIndianMedicalHistory.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 49–51withfootnotes.ISBN 978-81-208-1768-5. ^abGeraldJamesLarson(2001).ClassicalSāṃkhya:AnInterpretationofItsHistoryandMeaning.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 189–192,270–271.ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3. ^abcdLinga,MonierMonier-Williams,HarvardUniversityArchives,pp.901-902 ^abYvesBonnefoy(1993).AsianMythologies.UniversityofChicagoPress.pp. 38–39.ISBN 978-0-226-06456-7. ^[9][16][17][1][18][19] ^abMansingh,Ajai(2016)."StewardsofCreationCovenant:HinduismandtheEnvironment".CaribbeanQuarterly.AJournalofCaribbeanCulture.41(1):62.doi:10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconography,Volume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 63–68,72–87,91–98.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^abKlostermaier,KlausK.(2007).ASurveyofHinduism(3. ed.).Albany,N.Y.:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.p. 111.ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4. ^Doniger2011,p. 491. ^[22][23][24] ^abAlexWayman(1987)."O,thatLinga!".AnnalsoftheBhandarkarOrientalResearchInstitute.68(1/4):30.,Quote:"ThatiswhytodayonewillreadinvariousworksbyIndiansonSaivismadenialthatthelingaisaphallus;andthelateDr.BashamoncetoldthepresentwriterthatinalltheyearsofhisIndiacontactsheneverfoundanySaiviteadmittingthatthelingaisaphallus." ^abcJamesG.Lochtefeld(2001).TheIllustratedEncyclopediaofHinduism,Volume1.TheRosenPublishingGroup.p. 390.ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. ^Doniger2011,p. 503. ^LewisR.Rambo;CharlesE.Farhadian(2014).TheOxfordHandbookofReligiousConversion.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 332–333.ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 217. ^abcdT.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.p. 76.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^AlexWayman(1987)."O,thatLinga!".AnnalsoftheBhandarkarOrientalResearchInstitute.68(1/4):29–31. ^LordShivaandHisWorshipbySriSwamiSivananda(1945),ChapterIX:SivaYogaSadhna,Section7:WorshipofSivaLingam,2015edition,AllahabadBookWorldLtd. ^LordShivaandHisWorshipbySriSwamiSivananda(1945),ChapterIX:SivaYogaSadhna,Section7:WorshipofSivaLingam,Page220,2015edition,AllahabadBookWorldLtd. ^abSubramuniyaswami,Sivaya(2001).DancingwithSiva.USA:HimalayanAcademy.ISBN 0945497970. ^"DictionaryofDancingwithSiva".Searchforthe'Paraśiva:परशिव'and'Parāśakti:पराशक्ति'. ^abcSivananda,Swami(1996)."WorshipofSivaLinga".LordSivaandHisWorship.TheDivineLifeTrustSociety. ^O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(1981).Śiva,theeroticascetic.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-520250-3. ^O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(2013).OnHinduism.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780199360079. ^O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(2009).TheHindus:AnAlternativeHistory.UnitedStates:VikingPress.ISBN 978-0143116691. ^RohitDasgupta(26September2014).MichaelKimmel;ChristineMilrod;AmandaKennedy(eds.).CulturalEncyclopediaofthePenis.Rowman&Littlefield.p. 107.ISBN 9780759123144. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 14. ^Winternitz,Moriz;V.SrinivasaSarma(1981).AHistoryofIndianLiterature,Volume1.MotilalBanarsidass.p. 543footnote4.ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. ^Lipner,JuliusJ.(2017).HinduImagesandTheirWorshipwithSpecialReferencetoVaisnavism:APhilosophical-theologicalInquiry.London;NewYork:Routledge,Taylor&FrancisGroup.p. 39.ISBN 9781351967822.OCLC 985345208. ^abcdSrinivasan2004,p. 434. ^Kenoyer,JonathanMark(1998).AncientCitiesoftheIndusVallyCivilization.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780195779400. ^abcHarding,ElizabethU.(1998)."God,theFather".Kali:TheBlackGoddessofDakshineswar.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 156–157.ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9. ^SubramanianKR(2002).OriginofSaivismandItsHistoryintheTamilLand.AsianEducationalServices.pp. 29–30.ISBN 978-81-206-0144-4. ^abcdefAskoParpola(1985)."TheSkyGarment-AstudyoftheHarappanreligionanditsrelationtotheMesopotamianandlaterIndianreligions".StudiaOrientalia.TheFinnishOrientalSociety.57:101–107. ^ArthurLlewellynBasham(1967).TheWonderthatwasIndia:ASurveyoftheHistoryandCultureoftheIndianSubcontinentBeforetheComingoftheMuslims.Sidgwick&Jackson(1986Reprint).p. 24.ISBN 978-0-283-99257-5.,Quote:"Ithasbeensuggestedthatcertainlargering-shapedstonesareformalizedrepresentationsofthefemaleregenerativeorganandweresymbolsoftheMotherGoddess,butthisismostdoubtful." ^Constance&James2006,p. 516. ^JyotsnaChawla(1990).TheR̥gvedicdeitiesandtheiriconicforms.MunshiramManoharlalPublishers.p. 185.ISBN 9788121500821. ^Doniger2011,pp. 485–502. ^abDeVito&DeVito1994,p. 5. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 122. ^abcdefKramrisch1994,p. 222. ^Mahdihassan1989,p. 247. ^abcdAlainDaniélou(1991).TheMythsandGodsofIndia.PrincetonBollingenSeries.InnerTraditions/Bear&Co.pp. 222–224.ISBN 978-0-89281-354-4. ^Kramrisch1994,pp. 171–185. ^K.V.,Anantharaman."ChapterX-OmnipotenceofSivaLinga".SivaGitaACriticalStudy.hdl:10603/295754. ^abDoniger2011,pp. 489–502. ^EllwoodAustinWelden(1910)."TheSamkhyaTerm,Linga".TheAmericanJournalofPhilology.TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.31(4):445–459.doi:10.2307/288521.JSTOR 288521. ^CharlesPhillips;MichaelKerrigan;DavidGould(2011).AncientIndiaMythsandBeliefs.TheRosenPublishingGroup.pp. 41–45.ISBN 978-1-4488-5990-0. ^Harding,ElizabethU.(1998)."God,theFather".Kali:TheBlackGoddessofDakshineswar.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 156–157.ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9. ^abcdeVivekananda,Swami."ThePariscongressofthehistoryofreligions".TheCompleteWorksofSwamiVivekananda.Vol. 4. ^Singh,NagendraKr.(1997).EncyclopaediaofHinduism(1st ed.).NewDelhi:CentreforInternationalReligiousStudies.p. 1567.ISBN 9788174881687. ^abcdefgDoniger2011,pp. 491–493. ^JohnGuy(2007).IndianTempleSculpture.HarryN.Abrams.p. 35.ISBN 978-1-85177-509-5. ^Elgood,Heather(2000).HinduismandtheReligiousArts.London:Cassell.p. 47.ISBN 978-0-8264-9865-6. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1997).ElementsofHinduIconography.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 223–229,237.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^ShivaasLordoftheDance(Nataraja),Cholaperiod,c.10th/11thcenturyTheArtInstituteofChicago,UnitedStates ^P.Arundhati(2002).Annapurna :ABunchofFlowersofIndianCulture.Concept.pp. 40–45.ISBN 978-81-7022-897-4. ^Ghurye,G.S.(1952)."AsceticOrigins".SociologicalBulletin.SociologicalBulletin,1(2).1(2):162–184.doi:10.1177/0038022919520206.S2CID 220049343. ^abcdPensa,Corrado."SomeInternalandComparativeProblemsintheFieldofIndianReligions."ProblemsandMethodsoftheHistoryofReligions.Brill,1972.102-122. ^"Urdhvaretas,Urdhvaretās,Ūrdhvaretas,Urdhva-retas:7definitions".www.wisdomlib.org.9September2014. ^abcKramrisch1994,p. 26. ^abSwamiAgehanandaBharati(1970).TheTantricTradition.RedWheel/Weiser.p. 294.ISBN 0877282536. ^abDevduttPattanaik(2018).ShivatoShankara:GivingFormtotheFormless.HarperCollins.pp. 13–14.ISBN 9789352641956. ^O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger."AsceticismandSexualityintheMythologyofŚiva.PartI."HistoryofReligions8,no.4(1969):300-37.AccessedSeptember7,2021.http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062019. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 555. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 238. ^S.Kramrisch(1994).ThePresenceofSiva.PrincetonUniversityPress.p. 179.ISBN 0-691-01930-4. ^abcdT.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconography,Volume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 63–67.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^abMahadevChakravarti(1986).TheConceptofRudra-ŚivaThroughtheAges.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 131–133.ISBN 978-81-208-0053-3. ^C.Sivaramamurti(1977).L'ArtenInde.H.N.Abrams.p. 77.ISBN 978-0-8109-0630-3. ^abPattanaik,Devdutt.ShivatoShankara:Decodingthephallicsymbol.IndusSource,2006. ^GovindSadashivGhurye(1966).IndianCostume.PopularPrakashan.pp. xvi,xlvii.ISBN 978-81-7154-403-5. ^ShashiAsthana(1999).MathurāKalā:CatalogueofMathuraSculpturesinNationalMuseum.NationalMuseumofIndia.pp. 23–28.ISBN 978-81-85832-10-4. ^FrederickM.Asher(1980).TheArtofEasternIndia:300-800.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.p. 27.ISBN 978-1-4529-1225-7. ^MichaelW.Meister(1984).DiscoursesonSiva.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.p. 494.ISBN 978-0-8122-7909-2. ^Kramrisch1994,p. 220-222. ^Grimes1996,p. 176. ^AlfHiltebeitel(2018).Freud'sMahabharata.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 123–124,footnote179.ISBN 978-0-19-087834-4. ^abcdKramrisch1994,p. 206. ^abc"ThereasonforŚiva'sassumingthephallicform(liṅga)[Chapter12]".www.wisdomlib.org.29October2018.Retrieved5March2021. ^abKramrisch1994,p. 207. ^abKramrisch1994,p. 207-208. ^"ModeofworshipingthephallicformofŚivaandmakinggifts[Chapter11]".www.wisdomlib.org.19August2018.Retrieved5March2021. ^Chaturvedi(2004).ShivPurana(2006 ed.).DiamondPocketBooks.p. 11.ISBN 978-81-7182-721-3. ^abBlurton,T.R.(1992)."StonestatueofShivaasLingodbhava".ExtractfromHinduart(London,TheBritishMuseumPress).BritishMuseumsite.Retrieved2July2010. ^"ReadingtheVedicLiteratureinSanskrit".is1.mum.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon3March2016.Retrieved2June2017. ^Wadher,Rupesh;Dwivedi,RambabuR(2012)."ApplicabilityandimportanceofCaraka′sconceptofAaturaparijnanaHetawahinunderstandingapatient".AYU.33(2):188–192.doi:10.4103/0974-8520.105236.PMC 3611657.PMID 23559788.,Quote:"LingaorSymptomatology:LingaacquiresthesecondpositionintheTriSutra.Itincludesentiresignsandsymptomsofthediseasesandhealthalso.OnlytheknowledgeofHetuisnotsufficientforthediagnosisofAaturavastha.HenceLingaorthesymptomatologyisveryusefultoolinthediagnosisofadisease." ^ThakarVJ(1982)."Diagnosticmethodsinayurveda".AncSciLife.1(3):139–45.PMC 3336683.PMID 22556480. ^Junjarwad,Ashwini;Savalgi,Pavan;Vyas,Mahesh(2013)."CriticalreviewonBhaishajyaKaala(timeofdrugadministration)inAyurveda".AYU.34(1):6–10.doi:10.4103/0974-8520.115436.PMC 3764882.PMID 24049398. ^PeterM.Scharf(1996).TheDenotationofGenericTermsinAncientIndianPhilosophy:Grammar,Nyāya,andMīmāṃsā.AmericanPhilosophicalSociety.pp. 66,136withfootnotes.ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6. ^HartmutScharfe(1977).GrammaticalLiterature.OttoHarrassowitzVerlag.pp. 105–106.ISBN 978-3-447-01706-0. ^SatisChandraVidyabhusana(1988).AHistoryofIndianLogic:Ancient,MediaevalandModernSchools.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 377,510–511.ISBN 978-81-208-0565-1. ^WilhelmHalbfass(1991).TraditionandReflection:ExplorationsinIndianThought.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 159–161.ISBN 978-1-4384-0546-9. ^JamesW.Haag;GregoryR.Peterson;MichaelL.Spezio(2012).TheRoutledgeCompaniontoReligionandScience.Routledge.pp. 503–504.ISBN 978-1-136-63417-8. ^AlexWayman(1987)."O,thatLinga!".AnnalsoftheBhandarkarOrientalResearchInstitute.68(1/4):19–20. ^abcdefDoniger2011,pp. 493–498. ^J.L.Brockington(2016).HinduismandChristianity.Springer.p. 33.ISBN 978-1-349-22280-3. ^SusanBayly(2003).Saints,GoddessesandKings:MuslimsandChristiansinSouthIndianSociety,1700-1900.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 129–130withfootnote55.ISBN 978-0-521-89103-5. ^abAlexWayman(1987)."O,thatLinga!".AnnalsoftheBhandarkarOrientalResearchInstitute.68(1/4):17,22–25. ^Doniger2011,pp. 498–499:"ButseveraloftheDelhisultans,thosewhowereparticularlydevoutandiconoclastMuslims,regardedthelingamassexualandanthropomorphic,andtookprideindestroyingasmanylingamsastheycould.In1026,MahmudofGhazniattackedthetempleofSomnath,whichheldafamousShivalingam;thismuch,atleast,seemstobehistoricalfact.Butthencomesthemythologizing.Accordingtosomeversionsofthestory,includingearlyTurko-Persiantriumphalistsources,Mahmudstrippedthegreatgildedlingamofitsgoldandhackedittobitswithhissword,sendingthebitsbacktoGhazni,wheretheywereincorporatedintothestepsofthenewmosque(Keay2000:207–209).MedievalHinduepicsofresistancecreatedacountermythologyinwhichthestolenimagecametolife(anotherbitofevidencethatitwasregardedasalivingthing,abodyinitself)andeventually,likeahorsetrottingbacktothestable,returnedtothetempletobereconsecrated(Davis1997:90–112)" ^MehrdadShokoohy(2013).MuslimArchitectureofSouthIndia.Routledge.pp. 17–18.ISBN 978-1-136-49984-5. ^DouglasT.McGetchin(2009).Indology,Indomania,andOrientalism:AncientIndia'sRebirthinModernGermany.FairleighDickinsonUnivPress.p. 34.ISBN 978-0-8386-4208-5. ^Doniger2011,p. 500, Quote:"TheBritishmissionariesmostdespisedwhattheyregardedastheobsceneidolatryofthelingam.TheBritishingeneral,whowereofcourseVictorianineverysenseoftheword,regardedtheHindus,astheyregardedmostcolonizedpeopleofcolor,assimultaneouslyoversexedandimpotent,andtheBritishpresencehadanegativeeffectontheself-perceptionthatHindushadoftheirownbodies(Nandy1983).For,stillreelingfromtheonslaughtoftheMuslimcampaignsagainstlingams,theHinduswhoworkedwithandfortheBritishinternalizedtheircolonizers'scorn." ^abImmaRamos(2017).PilgrimageandPoliticsinColonialBengal:TheMythoftheGoddessSati.Taylor&Francis.pp. 56–58.ISBN 978-1-351-84000-2. ^HughB.Urban(2009).ThePowerofTantra:Religion,SexualityandthePoliticsofSouthAsianStudies.I.B.Tauris.pp. 8–10.ISBN 978-0-85773-158-6. ^abcDoniger2011,pp. 500–502. ^abDoniger2011,pp. 499–505. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 81–84.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^StellaKramrisch(1994).ExploringIndia'SSacredArtSelectedWritingsofStellaKramrischEd.&WithABiographicalEssay.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 141–147.ISBN 978-81-208-1208-6. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 97–99.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^N.S.Ramaswami(1976).MonographontemplesofMukhalingam.GovernmentofAndhraPradesh.pp. 1–9. ^MahadevChakravarti(1986).TheConceptofRudra-ŚivaThroughtheAges.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 159–161.ISBN 978-81-208-0053-3. ^S.Kramrisch(1994).ThePresenceofSiva.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 178–183.ISBN 0-691-01930-4. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 95–96.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 96–97.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 96–98.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 99–100.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^T.A.GopinathaRao(1993).ElementsofHinduIconographyVolume2.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 87–94.ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. ^ChristopherJohnFuller(2004).TheCamphorFlame:PopularHinduismandSocietyinIndia.PrincetonUniversityPress.p. 58.ISBN 9780691120485. ^DominicGoodall,NibeditaRout,R.Sathyanarayanan,S.A.S.Sarma,T.GanesanandS.Sambandhasivacarya,ThePañcāvaraṇastavaofAghoraśivācārya:Atwelfth-centurySouthIndianprescriptionforthevisualisationofSadāśivaandhisretinue,Pondicherry,FrenchInstituteofPondicherryandEcolefrançaised'Extréme-Orient,2005,p.12. ^AndrewDavidHardy;MauroCucarzi;PatriziaZolese(2009).ChampaandtheArchaeologyofMỹSơn(Vietnam).p. NUSPress.pp.138,159.ISBN 978-9971-69-451-7. ^PratapadityaPal(1985).ArtofNepal:ACatalogueoftheLosAngelesCountyMuseumofArtCollection.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p. 109.ISBN 978-0-520-05407-3. ^Olson2007,p. 244. ^McCormack1963,pp. 59–62. ^abDalal2010,p. 208-209. ^Olson2007,p. 239–240. ^Schouten1995,pp. 71–72. ^Schouten1995,p. 6. ^abL.K.A.Iyer(1965).TheMysore.MittalPublications.pp. 81–82. ^BlakeMichael1992,pp. 22,82–83. ^JoannePunzoWaghorne;NormanCutler;VasudhaNarayanan(1996).GodsofFlesh,GodsofStone:TheEmbodimentofDivinityinIndia.ColumbiaUniversityPress.pp. 184note15.ISBN 978-0-231-10777-8. ^"Amarnath:JourneytotheshrineofaHindugod".Boston.com.13July2012. ^underthesection"GeneralIntroduction"."KadavulHinduTemple".Himalayanacademy. ^"IraivanTempleintheNews". ^"RareCrystalSivaLingamArrivesatHawaiiTemple".hinduismtoday. ^"यहांहैविश्वकासबसेबड़ाप्राकृतिकशिवलिंग".16January2015. ^"BhuteshwarShivling".news.yahoo.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30June2018. ^"ShivlinginChhattisgarh".18December2015. ^"TallestShivalingamincountryentersIndiabookofrecords|ThiruvananthapuramNews-TimesofIndia".TheTimesofIndia.TNN.10January2019.Retrieved27June2021. ^Singh,Upinder(2008).AHistoryofAncientandEarlyMedievalIndia:FromtheStoneAgetothe12thCentury.PearsonEducationIndia.p. 435.ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. ^abKramrisch1994,p. 218. ^Ghurye,G.S.,1952.AsceticOrigins.SociologicalBulletin,1(2),pp.162-184. Bibliography[edit] Basham,A.L.TheWonderThatWasIndia:AsurveyofthecultureoftheIndianSub-ContinentbeforethecomingoftheMuslims,GrovePress,Inc.,NewYork(1954;EvergreenEdition1959). BlakeMichael,R.(1992),TheOriginsofVīraśaivaSects:ATypologicalAnalysisofRitualandAssociationalPatternsintheŚūnyasaṃpādane,MotilalBanarsidass,ISBN 978-81-208-0776-1 Chakravarti,Mahadev.TheConceptofRudra-ŚivaThroughtheAges,Delhi:MotilalBanarasidass(1986),ISBN 8120800532. Dalal,Roshen(2010),TheReligionsofIndia:AConciseGuidetoNineMajorFaiths,PenguinBooks,ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6 Davis,RichardH.(1992).RitualinanOscillatingUniverse:WorshippingŚivainMedievalIndia.Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 9780691073866. Daniélou,Alain(1991).TheMythsandGodsofIndia:TheClassicWorkonHinduPolytheism.InnerTraditions/Bear&Company.pp. 222–231.ISBN 0-89281-354-7. Doniger,Wendy(2011),"God'sBody,or,TheLingamMadeFlesh:ConflictsovertheRepresentationoftheSexualBodyoftheHinduGodShiva",Soc.Res.SocialResearch,78(2):485–508,ISSN 0037-783X,JSTOR 23347187,OCLC 772197753 Drabu,V.N.Śaivāgamas:AStudyintheSocio-economicIdeasandInstitutionsofKashmir(200B.C.toA.D.700),NewDelhi:IndusPublishing(1990),ISBN 8185182388. Kramrisch,Stella(1988).ThePresenceofSiva.Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass.ISBN 9788120804913. McCormack,William(1963),"LingayatsasaSect",TheJournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstituteofGreatBritainandIreland,93(1):59–71,doi:10.2307/2844333,JSTOR 2844333 Olson,Carl(2007),TheManyColorsofHinduism:AThematic-historicalIntroduction,RutgersUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0813540689 Śarmā,Rāmakaraṇa(1996).Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam :eightcollectionsofhymnscontainingonethousandandeightnamesofŚiva.Delhi:NagPublishers.ISBN 9788170813507.OCLC 36990863.IncludesŚivasahasranāmakoṣa,adictionaryofnames.ThisworkcompareseightversionsoftheŚivasahasranāmāstotra.Theprefaceandintroduction(inEnglish)byRamKaranSharmaprovideananalysisofhowtheeightversionscomparewithoneanother.ThetextoftheeightversionsisgiveninSanskrit. Schumacher,StephanandWoerner,Gert.TheEncyclopediaofEasternPhilosophyandReligion,Buddhism,Taoism,Zen,Hinduism,Shambhala,Boston,(1994)ISBN 0-87773-980-3. Schouten,JanPeter(1995),RevolutionoftheMystics:OntheSocialAspectsofVīraśaivism,MotilalBanarsidass,ISBN 978-8120812383 Kramrisch,Stella(1994),ThePresenceofŚiva,Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN 978-0691019307 Chakravarti,Mahadev(1986).TheconceptofRudra-Śivathroughtheages.MotilalBanarsidassPubl.ISBN 81-208-0053-2. Constance,Jones;James,Ryan(2006).EncyclopediaofHinduism.FactsOnFile.ISBN 0816054584. DeVito,Carole;DeVito,Pasquale(1994).India-Mahabharata.Fulbright-HaysSummerSeminarAbroad1994(India).UnitedStatesEducationalFoundationinIndia. Srinivasan,Sharada(2004)."Shivaas'cosmicdancer':OnPallavaoriginsfortheNatarajabronze".WorldArchaeology.Vol. 36.TheJournalofModernCraft.pp. 432–450.doi:10.1080/1468936042000282726821.S2CID 26503807. Grimes,JohnA.(1996).AConciseDictionaryofIndianPhilosophy:SanskritTermsDefinedinEnglish.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.ISBN 0791430677. Mahdihassan,S.(1989)."TheFiveCosmicElementsasDepictedinIndianandChineseCosmologies".TheAmericanJournalofChineseMedicine.4.17(3n04):245–252.doi:10.1142/S0192415X89000346.PMID 2699158.Retrieved16September2021. Externallinks[edit] WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoLingam. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoLingam. SomeinterestingLingaimagesfromKalanjaraandAjaigarh,SKSullerey(1980) O,thatLinga!,AlexWayman(1987) LingaandYoniworship,UrmilaAgrawal(1995) AnoteontheLingawithSaktiimagesinBengalArt,KDGupta(2011) vteShaivismHistoryDeities Shiva Sadyojata Vamadeva Aghora/Bhairava Tatpurusha Ishana Nataraja Dakshinamurthy Harihara Shakti Ardhanarishvara Sati Parvati Ganesha Kartikeya Nandi Texts ShvetashvataraUpanishad ShivarahasyaPurana ShivaPurana ShivaSutrasofVasugupta Tirumurai Mantra/Stotra OmNamahShivaya Rudrashtakam Mahāmrityunjaya ShivaTandava Sahasranama Chalisa ShriRudram ShivaMahimna Traditions ShaivaSiddhanta PashupataShaivism Kapalika Aghori Kaula TrikaShaivism VeeraShaivism SiddhaSiddhanta ShivaAdvaita ShaivaSmartas Shivatemple Amarnath Brihadeeswarar KailashMansarovar KatasRaj Lingaraja MeenakshiSundareshwarar Tiruchengode VadakkumNathan PanchKedar Kedarnath Tungnath Rudranath Madhyamaheshwar Kalpeshwar PanchaSabhai Rathina Pon Velli Thamira Chitira PanchaBhoota Chidambaram,Ether 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Natyaveda Sthapatyaveda Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyākaraṇa Nirukta Kalpa Jyotisha Other BhagavadGita Agamas Itihasas Ramayana Mahabharata Puranas MinorUpanishads Arthashastra Nitisara Dharmaśāstra Manusmriti Nāradasmṛti YājñavalkyaSmṛti Sutras Stotras Subhashita Tantras YogaVasistha YogaSutrasofPatanjali SangamLiterature Tirumurai DivyaPrabandham Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai Thiruppugazh Thirukkural KambaRamayanam FiveGreatEpics EighteenGreaterTexts EighteenLesserTexts Aathichoodi IraiyanarAkapporul AbhiramiAnthadhi ThiruvilaiyadalPuranam VinayagarAgaval DeitiesGods Trimurti Brahma Vishnu Shiva Agni Dattatreya Ganesha Hanuman Indra Kartikeya Krishna Rama Surya Varuna Vayu more Goddesses Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Parvati Bhumi Durga Kali Mahavidya Matrika Radha Rukmini Sati Shakti Shashthi Sita more PracticesWorship Temple Murti Puja Bhakti Japa Bhajan Naivedhya Yajna Homa Tapas Dhyāna Tirthatana Sanskaras Garbhadhana Pumsavana Simantonayana Jatakarma Namakarana Nishkramana Annaprashana 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