Savanna - Wikipedia

A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the ... Savanna FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Mixedwoodland-grasslandecosystem "Savannah"redirectshere.ForthecityintheU.S.stateofGeorgia,seeSavannah,Georgia.Forotheruses,seeSavannah(disambiguation). TypicaltropicalsavannainNorthernAustraliademonstratingthehightreedensityandregularspacingcharacteristicofmanysavannas Asavannaorsavannahisamixedwoodland-grassland(i.e.grassywoodland)ecosystemcharacterisedbythetreesbeingsufficientlywidelyspacedsothatthecanopydoesnotclose.Theopencanopyallowssufficientlighttoreachthegroundtosupportanunbrokenherbaceouslayerconsistingprimarilyofgrasses.[1][2][3] Savannasmaintainanopencanopydespiteahightreedensity.[4]Itisoftenbelievedthatsavannasfeaturewidelyspaced,scatteredtrees.However,inmanysavannas,treedensitiesarehigherandtreesaremoreregularlyspacedthaninforests.[5][6][7][8]TheSouthAmericansavannatypescerradosensustrictoandcerradodensetypicallyhavedensitiesoftreessimilartoorhigherthanthatfoundinSouthAmericantropicalforests,[5][7][8]withsavannarangingfrom800–3300treesperhectare(trees/ha)andadjacentforestswith800–2000 trees/ha.SimilarlyGuineansavannahas129 trees/ha,comparedto103forriparianforest,[6]whileEasternAustraliansclerophyllforestshaveaveragetreedensitiesofapproximately100perhectare,comparabletosavannasinthesameregion.[9] Savannasarealsocharacterisedbyseasonalwateravailability,withthemajorityofrainfallconfinedtooneseason;theyareassociatedwithseveraltypesofbiomes,andarefrequentlyinatransitionalzonebetweenforestanddesertorgrassland.Savannacoversapproximately20%oftheEarth'slandarea.[10] Contents 1Etymology 2Distribution 3Threats 3.1Changesinfiremanagement 3.2Grazingandbrowsinganimals 3.3Treeclearing 3.4Exoticplantspecies 3.5Climatechange 4Savannaecoregions 5Seealso 6References 7Externallinks Etymology ThewordderivesfromtheSpanishsabana,whichisitselfaloanwordfromTaíno.[11]LetterbinSpanish,whenpositionedinthemiddleofaword,ispronouncedalmostlikeanEnglishv;hencethechangeofgraphemewhentranscribedintoEnglish.[12] ThewordoriginallyenteredEnglishastheZauanainadescriptionoftheilandsofthekingesofSpaynefrom1555.[13][15]Thiswasequivalentintheorthographyofthetimestozavana(seehistoryofV).PeterMartyrreporteditasthelocalnamefortheplainaroundComagre,thecourtofthecaciqueCarlosinpresent-dayPanama.Theaccountsareinexact,[17]butthisisusuallyplacedinpresent-dayMadugandí[18]oratpointsonthenearbyGunaYalacoastoppositeUstupo[19]oronPointMosquitos.[20]Theseareasarenoweithergivenovertomoderncroplandorjungle.[21] Distribution TarangireNationalParkinTanzania,EastAfrica Manygrassylandscapesandmixedcommunitiesoftrees,shrubs,andgrassesweredescribedassavannabeforethemiddleofthe19thcentury,whentheconceptofatropicalsavannaclimatebecameestablished.TheKöppenclimateclassificationsystemwasstronglyinfluencedbyeffectsoftemperatureandprecipitationupontreegrowth,andhisoversimplifiedassumptionsresultedinatropicalsavannaclassificationconceptwhichresultedinitbeingconsideredasa"climaticclimax"formation.Thecommonusagemeaningtodescribevegetationnowconflictswithasimplifiedyetwidespreadclimaticconceptmeaning.ThedivergencehassometimescausedareassuchasextensivesavannasnorthandsouthoftheCongoandAmazonRiverstobeexcludedfrommappedsavannacategories.[22] "Barrens"hasbeenusedalmostinterchangeablywithsavannaindifferentpartsofNorthAmerica.Sometimesmidwesternsavannaweredescribedas"grasslandwithtrees".Differentauthorshavedefinedthelowerlimitsofsavannatreecoverageas5–10%andupperlimitsrangeas25–80%ofanarea.[23] Twofactorscommontoallsavannaenvironmentsarerainfallvariationsfromyeartoyear,anddryseasonwildfires.[citationneeded]IntheAmericas,e.g.inBelize,CentralAmerica,savannavegetationissimilarfromMexicotoSouthAmericaandtotheCaribbean.[24] Overmanylargetropicalareas,thedominantbiome(forest,savannaorgrassland)cannotbepredictedonlybytheclimate,ashistoricaleventsplaysalsoakeyrole,forexample,fireactivity.[25]Insomeareas,indeed,itispossiblefortheretobemultiplestablebiomes.[26] Threats Changesinfiremanagement Savannasaresubjecttoregularwildfiresandtheecosystemappearstobetheresultofhumanuseoffire.Forexample,NativeAmericanscreatedthePre-ColumbiansavannasofNorthAmericabyperiodicallyburningwherefire-resistantplantswerethedominantspecies.[27]PinebarrensinscatteredlocationsfromNewJerseytocoastalNewEnglandareremnantsofthesesavannas.AboriginalburningappearstohavebeenresponsibleforthewidespreadoccurrenceofsavannaintropicalAustraliaandNewGuinea,[28]andsavannasinIndiaarearesultofhumanfireuse.[29]ThemaquisshrubsavannasoftheMediterraneanregionwerelikewisecreatedandmaintainedbyanthropogenicfire.[30] Prescribedburn;Wisconsinburoaksavanna Thesefiresareusuallyconfinedtotheherbaceouslayeranddolittlelongtermdamagetomaturetrees.However,thesefireseitherkillorsuppresstreeseedlings,thuspreventingtheestablishmentofacontinuoustreecanopywhichwouldpreventfurthergrassgrowth.PriortoEuropeansettlementaboriginallandusepractices,includingfire,influencedvegetation[31]andmayhavemaintainedandmodifiedsavannaflora.[3][28]Ithasbeensuggestedbymanyauthors[31][32]thataboriginalburningcreatedastructurallymoreopensavannalandscape.Aboriginalburningcertainlycreatedahabitatmosaicthatprobablyincreasedbiodiversityandchangedthestructureofwoodlandsandgeographicrangeofnumerouswoodlandspecies.[28][31]Ithasbeensuggestedbymanyauthors[32][33]thatwiththeremovaloralterationoftraditionalburningregimesmanysavannasarebeingreplacedbyforestandshrubthicketswithlittleherbaceouslayer. Theconsumptionofherbagebyintroducedgrazersinsavannawoodlandshasledtoareductionintheamountoffuelavailableforburningandresultedinfewerandcoolerfires.[34]Theintroductionofexoticpasturelegumeshasalsoledtoareductionintheneedtoburntoproduceaflushofgreengrowthbecauselegumesretainhighnutrientlevelsthroughouttheyear,andbecausefirescanhaveanegativeimpactonlegumepopulationswhichcausesareluctancetoburn.[35] Grazingandbrowsinganimals Grevy'szebrasgrazing Theclosedforesttypessuchasbroadleafforestsandrainforestsareusuallynotgrazedowingtotheclosedstructureprecludinggrassgrowth,andhenceofferinglittleopportunityforgrazing.[36]Incontrasttheopenstructureofsavannasallowsthegrowthofaherbaceouslayerandiscommonlyusedforgrazingdomesticlivestock.[37]Asaresult,muchoftheworld'ssavannashaveundergonechangeasaresultofgrazingbysheep,goatsandcattle,rangingfromchangesinpasturecompositiontowoodyweedencroachment.[38] Iberianpigsfeedingonacornsofanholmoak Theremovalofgrassbygrazingaffectsthewoodyplantcomponentofwoodlandsystemsintwomajorways.Grassescompetewithwoodyplantsforwaterinthetopsoilandremovalbygrazingreducesthiscompetitiveeffect,potentiallyboostingtreegrowth.[39]Inadditiontothiseffect,theremovaloffuelreducesboththeintensityandthefrequencyoffireswhichmaycontrolwoodyplantspecies.[40]Grazinganimalscanhaveamoredirecteffectonwoodyplantsbythebrowsingofpalatablewoodyspecies.Thereisevidencethatunpalatablewoodyplantshaveincreasedundergrazinginsavannas.[41]Grazingalsopromotesthespreadofweedsinsavannasbytheremovalorreductionoftheplantswhichwouldnormallycompetewithpotentialweedsandhinderestablishment.[31]Inadditiontothis,cattleandhorsesareimplicatedinthespreadoftheseedsofweedspeciessuchaspricklyacacia(Acacianilotica)andstylo(Stylosanthesspecies).[34]Alterationsinsavannaspeciescompositionbroughtaboutbygrazingcanalterecosystemfunction,andareexacerbatedbyovergrazingandpoorlandmanagementpractices. Introducedgrazinganimalscanalsoaffectsoilconditionthroughphysicalcompactionandbreak-upofthesoilcausedbythehoovesofanimalsandthroughtheerosioneffectscausedbytheremovalofprotectiveplantcover.Sucheffectsaremostlikelytooccuronlandsubjectedtorepeatedandheavygrazing.[42]Theeffectsofoverstockingareoftenworstonsoilsoflowfertilityandinlowrainfallareasbelow500 mm,asmostsoilnutrientsintheseareastendtobeconcentratedinthesurfacesoanymovementofsoilscanleadtoseveredegradation.Alterationinsoilstructureandnutrientlevelsaffectstheestablishment,growthandsurvivalofplantspeciesandinturncanleadtoachangeinwoodlandstructureandcomposition. Treeclearing SavannaineasternSouthAfrica SavannainWesternSydney LargeareasofAustralianandSouthAmericansavannashavebeenclearedoftrees,andthisclearingiscontinuingtoday.Forexample,untilrecently480,000haofsavannawereclearedannuallyinAustraliaaloneprimarilytoimprovepastureproduction.[31]Substantialsavannaareashavebeenclearedofwoodyvegetationandmuchoftheareathatremainstodayisvegetationthathasbeendisturbedbyeitherclearingorthinningatsomepointinthepast. Clearingiscarriedoutbythegrazingindustryinanattempttoincreasethequalityandquantityoffeedavailableforstockandtoimprovethemanagementoflivestock.Theremovaloftreesfromsavannalandremovesthecompetitionforwaterfromthegrassespresent,andcanleadtoatwotofourfoldincreaseinpastureproduction,aswellasimprovingthequalityofthefeedavailable.[43]Sincestockcarryingcapacityisstronglycorrelatedwithherbageyield,therecanbemajorfinancialbenefitsfromtheremovaloftrees,[44]suchasassistingwithgrazingmanagement:regionsofdensetreeandshrubcoverharborspredators,leadingtoincreasedstocklosses,forexample,[45]whilewoodyplantcoverhindersmusteringinbothsheepandcattleareas.[46] Anumberoftechniqueshavebeenemployedtoclearorkillwoodyplantsinsavannas.Earlypastoralistsusedfellingandgirdling,theremovalofaringofbarkandsapwood,asameansofclearingland.[47]Inthe1950sarboricidessuitableforsteminjectionweredeveloped.War-surplusheavymachinerywasmadeavailable,andthesewereusedforeitherpushingtimber,orforpullingusingachainandballstrungbetweentwomachines.Thesetwonewmethodsoftimbercontrol,alongwiththeintroductionandwidespreadadoptionofseveralnewpasturegrassesandlegumespromotedaresurgenceintreeclearing.The1980salsosawthereleaseofsoil-appliedarboricides,notablytebuthiuron,thatcouldbeutilisedwithoutcuttingandinjectingeachindividualtree. Inmanyways"artificial"clearing,particularlypulling,mimicstheeffectsoffireand,insavannasadaptedtoregenerationafterfireasmostQueenslandsavannasare,thereisasimilarresponsetothatafterfire.[48]Treeclearinginmanysavannacommunities,althoughcausingadramaticreductioninbasalareaandcanopycover,oftenleavesahighpercentageofwoodyplantsaliveeitherasseedlingstoosmalltobeaffectedorasplantscapableofre-sproutingfromlignotubersandbrokenstumps.Apopulationofwoodyplantsequaltohalformoreoftheoriginalnumberoftenremainsfollowingpullingofeucalyptcommunities,evenifallthetreesover5metresareuprootedcompletely. Exoticplantspecies Acaciasavanna,TaitaHillsWildlifeSanctuary,Kenya. Anumberofexoticplantsspecieshavebeenintroducedtothesavannasaroundtheworld.AmongstthewoodyplantspeciesareseriousenvironmentalweedssuchasPricklyAcacia(Acacianilotica),Rubbervine(Cryptostegiagrandiflora),Mesquite(Prosopisspp.),Lantana(LantanacamaraandL.montevidensis)andPricklyPear(Opuntiaspp.)Arangeofherbaceousspecieshavealsobeenintroducedtothesewoodlands,eitherdeliberatelyoraccidentallyincludingRhodesgrassandotherChlorisspecies,Buffelgrass(Cenchrusciliaris),Giantrat'stailgrass(Sporoboluspyramidalis)parthenium(Partheniumhysterophorus)andstylos(Stylosanthesspp.)andotherlegumes.Theseintroductionshavethepotentialtosignificantlyalterthestructureandcompositionofsavannasworldwide,andhavealreadydonesoinmanyareasthroughanumberofprocessesincludingalteringthefireregime,increasinggrazingpressure,competingwithnativevegetationandoccupyingpreviouslyvacantecologicalniches.[48][49] Otherplantspeciesinclude:whitesage,spottedcactus,cottonseed,rosemary. Climatechange Humaninducedclimatechangeresultingfromthegreenhouseeffectmayresultinanalterationofthestructureandfunctionofsavannas.Someauthors[50]havesuggestedthatsavannasandgrasslandsmaybecomeevenmoresusceptibletowoodyplantencroachmentasaresultofgreenhouseinducedclimatechange.However,arecentcasedescribedasavannaincreasingitsrangeattheexpenseofforestinresponsetoclimatevariation,andpotentialexistsforsimilarrapid,dramaticshiftsinvegetationdistributionasaresultofglobalclimatechange,particularlyatecotonessuchassavannassooftenrepresent.[51] Savannaecoregions MediterraneansavannaintheAlentejoregion,Portugal Oaksavanna,UnitedStates Savannaecoregionsareofseveraldifferenttypes: Tropicalandsubtropicalsavannasareclassifiedwithtropicalandsubtropicalgrasslandsandshrublandsasthetropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsbiome.ThesavannasofAfrica,includingtheSerengeti,famousforitswildlife,aretypicalofthistype.TheBraziliansavanna(Cerrado)isalsoincludedinthiscategory,knownforitsexoticandvariedflora. Temperatesavannasaremid-latitudesavannaswithwettersummersanddrierwinters.Theyareclassifiedwithtemperatesavannasandshrublandsasthetemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsbiome,thatforexamplecovermuchoftheGreatPlainsoftheUnitedStates.(SeeareassuchastheCentralforest-grasslandstransition.) Mediterraneansavannasaremid-latitudesavannasinMediterraneanclimateregions,withmild,rainywintersandhot,drysummers,partoftheMediterraneanforests,woodlands,andscrubbiome.TheoaktreesavannasofCalifornia,partoftheCaliforniachaparralandwoodlandsecoregion,fallintothiscategory. Floodedsavannasaresavannasthatarefloodedseasonallyoryear-round.Theyareclassifiedwithfloodedsavannasasthefloodedgrasslandsandsavannasbiome,whichoccursmostlyinthetropicsandsubtropics. Montanesavannasaremid-tohigh-altitudesavannas,locatedinafewspotsaroundtheworld'shighmountainregions,partofthemontanegrasslandsandshrublandsbiome.TheBogotásavanna,locatedatanaveragealtitudeof2,550metres(8,370 ft)ontheAltiplanoCundiboyacense,EasternRangesoftheAndes,isanexampleofamontanesavanna.[52][53]ThesavannasoftheAngolanScarpsavannaandwoodlandsecoregionarealoweraltitudeexample,upto1,000metres(3,300 ft).[54] Seealso Pampas Pasture Prairie Rangeland Steppe Veld References ^Anderson,RogerA.,Fralish,JamesS.andBaskin,JerryM.editors.1999.Savannas,Barrens,andRockOutcropPlantCommunitiesofNorthAmerica.CambridgeUniversityPress. ^McPherson,G.R.(1997).EcologyandmanagementofNorthAmericanSavannas.Tucson,AZ:UniversityofArizonaPress. ^abWerner,PatriciaA.;B.H.Walker;P.AStott(1991)."Introduction".InPatriciaA.Werner(ed.).SavannaEcologyandManagement:AustralianPerspectivesandIntercontinentalComparisons.Oxford:BlackwellPublishing.ISBN 978-0-632-03199-3. 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^Archer,S.(1991)."Developmentandstabilityofgrass/woodymosaicsinasubtropicalsavannaparkland,Texas,USA".InPatriciaA.Werner(ed.).SavannaEcologyandManagement:AustralianPerspectivesandIntercontinentalComparisons.Oxford:BlackwellPublishing.pp. 109–118.ISBN 978-0-632-03199-3. ^Allen,C.D.&D.D.Breshears(1998)."Drought-inducedshiftofaforest–woodlandecotone:Rapidlandscaperesponsetoclimatevariation".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.95(25):14839–14842.Bibcode:1998PNAS...9514839A.doi:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14839.PMC 24536.PMID 9843976. ^CalvachiZambrano,Byron(2002)."Labiodiversidadbogotana"(PDF).RevistalaTadeo(inSpanish).UniversidadJorgeTadeoLozano.67:89–98.Retrieved2017-03-04. ^PérezPreciado,Alfonso(2000).LaestructuraecológicaprincipaldelaSabanadeBogotá(PDF)(inSpanish).SociedadGeográficadeColombia.pp. 1–37.Retrieved2017-03-04. ^AngolanScarpsavannaandwoodlands Externallinks WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoSavannas. TheSavanna "Savanna" .EncyclopædiaBritannica(11th ed.).1911. "Savannas" .NewInternationalEncyclopedia.1905. vtePhytogeography:VegetationclassificationPhysiognomy Forests,woodlands,arboretum Shrublands,scrubs,thickets,fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland,subshrublands,dwarf-scrubs,suffruticetum Herbaceouscommunities,grasslands,steppes,prairies,herbetum Savannas,parklands Scarcelyvegetatedareas,desertvegetation Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climaticregime Pluvial,rainy,ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Lossofleaves Deciduous,caducifolious Semi-deciduous,semicaducifolious Evergreen,perennifolious Leafhardness Sclerophyll,stiffleaves Orthophyll,hyptiophyllleaves Leafform Aciculifolious,needle-leaved Latifolious,broad-leaved Substrate Terrestrialvegetation Aquaticvegetation Riparian Mangrove Swampy Seealso Biogeographicrealms Biomes Floristickingdoms Planthabits Plantlife-forms Vegetation Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany Japan CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Savanna&oldid=1096357115" Categories:EcosystemsGrasslandsTemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsTropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsHiddencategories:CS1Spanish-languagesources(es)ArticleswithLatin-languagesources(la)ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataWikipediaindefinitelysemi-protectedpagesAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJuly2016CommonscategorylinkfromWikidataWikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromthe1911EncyclopaediaBritannicawithWikisourcereferenceWikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromtheNewInternationalEncyclopediaArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadViewsourceViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AfrikaansالعربيةAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)भोजपुरीБългарскиBosanskiBrezhonegCatalàЧӑвашлаCebuanoČeštinaChiShonaDanskDeutschDolnoserbskiEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGàidhligGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHornjoserbsceHrvatskiIdoBahasaIndonesiaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიҚазақшаKiswahiliKreyòlayisyenКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLietuviųLimburgsLingálaMagyarМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംBahasaMelayuMirandésမြန်မာဘာသာNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаپنجابیPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийShqipසිංහලSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSundaSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệt文言Winaray吴语粵語ZazakiŽemaitėška中文 Editlinks