Grassland - Wikipedia

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with ... Grassland FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Areawithvegetationdominatedbygrasses "Greensward"redirectshere.Fortheparkplan,seeCentralPark. Thisarticleisaboutthelandscapeofgrasslands,acommonvegetationtype.Forotheruses,seeGrassland(disambiguation). NachusaGrasslands,spring2016 Setariapumila,aspeciesofPoaceae(thedominantplantfamilyingrasslands) Grasslandsareareaswherethevegetationisdominatedbygrasses(Poaceae).However,sedge(Cyperaceae)andrush(Juncaceae)canalsobefoundalongwithvariableproportionsoflegumes,likeclover,andotherherbs.GrasslandsoccurnaturallyonallcontinentsexceptAntarcticaandarefoundinmostecoregionsoftheEarth.Furthermore,grasslandsareoneofthelargestbiomesonearthanddominatethelandscapeworldwide.[1]Therearedifferenttypesofgrasslands:naturalgrasslands,semi-naturalgrasslands,andagriculturalgrasslands.[1]Theycover31–43%oftheEarth'slandarea.[2][3] Contents 1Definitions 2Evolutionaryhistory 3Ecology 3.1Biodiversity 3.2Vegetation 3.3Fauna 4EcosystemServices 4.1CarbonSequestration 4.2Otherecosystemservices 5Degradation 5.1Causes 5.1.1Landuseintensification 5.1.2Climatechange 5.1.3Afforestationorintroductionofinvasivespecies 5.1.4Management 5.2Typesofdegradation 5.2.1Landcoverchange 6Conservationandrestoration 7Typesofgrasslands 7.1Classificationsofgrassland 7.2Generalgrasslandstypes 7.2.1Tropicalandsubtropical 7.2.2Temperate 7.2.3Flooded 7.2.4Montane 7.2.5Tundragrasslands 7.2.6Desertandxeric 8Temperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregions 9Tropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregions 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading Definitions[edit] Coxilhas(hillscoveredbygrasslands)inthePampas,RioGrandedoSulstate,Brazil. Thereisavarietyofdefinitionsforgrasslands: "...anyplantcommunity,includingharvestedforages,inwhichgrassesand/orlegumesmakeupthedominantvegetation."[1] "...terrestrialecosystemsdominatedbyherbaceousandshrubvegetation,andmaintainedbyfire,grazing,droughtand/orfreezingtemperatures."(PilotAssessmentofGlobalEcosystems,2000)[1] "Aregionwithsufficientaverageannualprecipitation(25-75cm)tosupportgrass..."(Stiling,1999)[1] Semi-naturalgrasslandsareaverycommonsubcategoryofthegrasslandsbiome.[4]Thesecanbedefinedas: Grasslandexistingasaresultofhumanactivity(mowingorlivestockgrazing),whereenvironmentalconditionsandthespeciespoolaremaintainedbynaturalprocesses.[5] Theycanalsobedescribedasthefollowing: "Semi-naturalgrasslandsareoneoftheworld'smostbiodiversehabitatsonasmallspatialscales."[6] "Semi-naturalgrasslandsbelongtothemostspeciesrichecosystemsintheworld."[7] "...havebeenformedoverthecourseofcenturiesthroughextensivegrazingandmowing."[6] "...withouttheuseofpesticidesorfertilisersinmoderntime."[8] Therearemanydifferenttypesofsemi-naturalgrasslands,e.g.haymeadows.[8] Evolutionaryhistory[edit] Thegraminoidsareamongthemostversatilelifeforms.TheybecamewidespreadtowardtheendoftheCretaceousperiod,andcoprolitesoffossilizeddinosaurfeceshavebeenfoundcontainingphytolithsofavarietyofgrassesthatincludegrassesthatarerelatedtomodernriceandbamboo. TheappearanceofmountainsinthewesternUnitedStatesduringtheMioceneandPlioceneepochs,aperiodofsome25 millionyears,createdacontinentalclimatefavourabletotheevolutionofgrasslands.[9] Around5 millionyearsagoduringtheLateMioceneintheNewWorldandthePlioceneintheOldWorld,thefirsttruegrasslandsoccurred.Existingforestbiomesdeclined,andgrasslandsbecamemuchmorewidespread.ItisknownthatgrasslandshaveexistedinEuropethroughoutthePleistocene(thelast1.8 millionyears).[8]FollowingthePleistoceneiceages(withtheirglacialsandinterglacials),grasslandsexpandedinthehotter,drierclimates,andbegantobecomethedominantlandfeatureworldwide.[9]Sincethegrasslandshaveexistedforover1.8 millionyears,thereishighvariability.Forexamplesteppe-tundradominatedinNorthernandCentralEuropewhereasahigheramountofxerothermicgrasslandsoccurredintheMediterraneanarea.[8]WithintemperateEurope,therangeoftypesisquitewideandalsobecameuniqueduetotheexchangeofspeciesandgeneticmaterialbetweendifferentbiomes. Thesemi-naturalgrasslandsfirstappearedwhenhumansstartedfarming.Sofortheuseofagriculture,forestsgotclearedinEurope.Ancientmeadowsandpastureswerethepartsthatweresuitableforcultivation.Thesemi-naturalgrasslandswereformedfromtheseareas.[8]However,there'salsoevidenceforthelocalpersistenceofnaturalgrasslandsinEurope,originallymaintainedbywildherbivores,throughoutthepre-neolithicHolocene.[10]Theremovaloftheplantsbythegrazinganimalsandlaterthemowingfarmersledtoco-existenceofotherplantspeciesaround.Inthefollowing,thebiodiversityoftheplantsevolve.Also,thespeciesthatalreadylivedthereadaptedtothenewconditions.[8] Mostofthegrasslandareashavebeenturnedtoarablefieldsanddisappearedagain. Nowadays,semi-naturalgrasslandsareratherlocatedinareasthatareunsuitableforagriculturalfarming.[8] Ecology[edit] Biodiversity[edit] Grasslandsdominatedbyunsownwild-plantcommunities("unimprovedgrasslands")canbecalledeithernaturalor"semi-natural"habitat.Althoughtheirplantcommunitiesarenatural,theirmaintenancedependsuponanthropogenicactivitiessuchasgrazingandcuttingregimes.Thesemi-naturalgrasslandscontainmanyspeciesofwildplants,includinggrasses,sedges,rushes,andherbs;25plant-speciesper100squarecentimeterscanbefound.[8]AEuropeanrecordthatwasfoundonameadowinEstoniadescribed76speciesofplantsinonesquaremeter.[8]ChalkdownlandsinEnglandcansupportover40speciespersquaremeter. Blackrhino Inmanypartsoftheworld,fewexampleshaveescapedagriculturalimprovement(fertilizing,weedkilling,plowing,orre-seeding).Forexample,originalNorthAmericanprairiegrasslandsorlowlandwildflowermeadowsintheUKarenowrareandtheirassociatedwildfloraequallythreatened.Associatedwiththewild-plantdiversityofthe"unimproved"grasslandsisusuallyarichinvertebratefauna;therearealsomanyspeciesofbirdsthataregrassland"specialists",suchasthesnipeandthelittlebustard.[11]Owingtosemi-naturalgrasslandsbeingreferredtoasoneofthemost-speciesrichecosystemsintheworldandessentialhabitatformanyspecialists,alsoincludingpollinators,[7]therearemanyapproachestoconservationactivitieslately. Agriculturallyimprovedgrasslands,whichdominatemodernintensiveagriculturallandscapes,areusuallypoorinwildplantspeciesduetotheoriginaldiversityofplantshavingbeendestroyedbycultivationandbytheuseoffertilizers. Almost90%oftheEuropeansemi-naturalgrasslandsdonotexistanymoreduetopoliticalandeconomicreasons.Thislossonlytookplaceduringthe20thcentury.[6]TheonesinWesternandCentralEuropehavealmostdisappearedcompletely.ThereareafewleftinNorthernEurope.[6] Unfortunately,alargeamountofred-listedspeciesarespecialistsofsemi-naturalgrasslandsandareaffectedbythelandscapechangeduetoagricultureofthelastcentury.[12] Theoriginalwild-plantcommunitieshavingbeenreplacedbysownmonoculturesofcultivatedvarietiesofgrassesandclovers,suchasperennialryegrassandwhiteclover.Inmanypartsoftheworld,"unimproved"grasslandsareoneofthemostthreatenedtypesofhabitat,andatargetforacquisitionbywildlifeconservationgroupsorforspecialgrantstolandownerswhoareencouragedtomanagethemappropriately. Vegetation[edit] Quercusrobur-alsoknownastheEnglishoak-dominatingthesemi-naturalgrasslands Grasslandvegetationcanvaryconsiderablydependingonthegrasslandtypeandonhowstrongitisaffectedbyhumanimpact.Dominanttreesforthesemi-naturalgrasslandareQuercusrobur,Betulapendula,Corylusavellana,Crataegusandmanykindsofherbs.[13] Inchalkgrassland,theplantscanvaryfromheighttoveryshort.QuitetallgrassescanbefoundinNorthAmericantallgrassprairie,SouthAmericangrasslands,andAfricansavanna.Woodyplants,shrubsortreesmayoccuronsomegrasslands–formingsavannas,scrubbygrasslandorsemi-woodedgrassland,suchastheAfricansavannasortheIberiandeheza.[14] Asfloweringplantsandtrees,grassesgrowingreatconcentrationsinclimateswhereannualrainfallrangesbetween500and900 mm(20and35 in).[15]Therootsystemsofperennialgrassesandforbsformcomplexmatsthatholdthesoilinplace. Fauna[edit] mountainplover Grasslandssupportthegreatestaggregationsoflargeanimalsonearth,includingjaguars,Africanwilddogs,pronghorn,black-footedferret,plainsbison,mountainplover,Africanelephant,Sundatiger,blackrhino,whiterhino,savannaelephant,greaterone-hornedrhino,Indianelephantandswiftfox.Grazinganimals,herdanimals,andpredatorsingrasslands,likelionsandcheetahsliveinthegrasslandsoftheAfricansavanna.[16]Mites,insectlarvaenematodes,andearthwormsinhabitdeepsoil,whichcanreach6metersundergroundinundisturbedgrasslandsontherichestsoilsoftheworld.Theseinvertebrates,alongwithsymbioticfungi,extendtherootsystems,breakaparthardsoil,enrichitwithureaandothernaturalfertilizers,trapmineralsandwaterandpromotegrowth.Sometypesoffungimaketheplantsmoreresistanttoinsectandmicrobialattacks.[17] cheetah Grasslandinallitsformsupportsavastvarietyofmammals,reptiles,birds,andinsects.Typicallargemammalsincludethebluewildebeest,Americanbison,giantanteater,andPrzewalski'shorse.[18] Theplantsandanimalsthatliveingrasslandsareconnectedthroughanunlimitedwebofinteractions.Buttheremovalofkeyspecies—suchasbuffaloandprairiedogswithintheAmericanWest—andintroductionofinvasivespecies,likecanetoadsinnorthernAustralia,havedisruptedthebalanceintheseecosystemsanddamagedanumberofotherspecies.[16]Grasslandsarehometoanumberoftheforemostmagnificentanimalsontheplanet-elephants,bison,lions-andhuntershavefoundthemtobeenticingprey.Butwhenhuntingisn'tcontrolledorisconductedillegally,speciescanbecomeextinct.[16] EcosystemServices[edit] Grasslandsprovidearangeofmarketedandnonmarketedecosystemservices. CarbonSequestration[edit] Grasslandsholdabout20percentofglobalsoilcarbonstocks.[2]Herbaceous(non-wooded)vegetationdominatesgrasslandsand,unlikeforests,carbonisstoredintherootsandsoilunderground.Furthermore,thisabove-groundbiomasscarbonisrelativelyshort-livedduetograzing,fire,andsenescence.Incontrast,grasslandspecieshaveanextensivefibrousrootsystem,withgrassesoftenaccountingfor60-80%ofthebiomasscarboninthisecosystem.Thisundergroundbiomasscanextendseveralmetersbelowthesurfaceandstoreabundantcarbonintothesoil,resultingindeep,fertilesoilswithhighorganicmattercontent.Forthisreason,soilcarbonaccountsforabout81%ofthetotalecosystemcarboningrasslands.Thecloselinkbetweensoilcarbonandundergroundbiomassleadstosimilarresponsesofthesecarbonpoolstofluctuationsinannualprecipitationandtemperatureonabroadspatialscale.Becauseplantproductivityislimitedbygrasslandprecipitation,carbonstocksarehighestinregionswhereprecipitationisheaviest,suchasthehighgrassprairieinthehumidtemperateregionoftheUnitedStates.Similarly,asannualtemperaturesrise,grasslandcarbonstocksdecreaseduetoincreasedevapotranspiration.[19] Grasslandshavesufferedlargelossesoforganiccarbonduetosoildisturbances,vegetationdegradation,fires,erosion,nutrientdeficiencies,andwatershortages.Thetype,frequencyandintensityofthedisturbancecanplayakeyroleinthesoilorganiccarbon(SOC)balanceofgrasslands.Bedrock,irrigationpractices,soilacidification,liming,andpasturemanagementcanallhavepotentialimpactsongrasslandorganiccarbonstocks.[20] Goodgrasslandmanagementcanreversehistoricalsoilcarbonlosses.[2][21]Therelationshipofimprovedbiodiversitywithcarbonstorageissubjectofresearch.[22] Otherecosystemservices[edit] promotionofgeneticdiversity weatheramelioration[23] provisionofwildlifehabitat Degradation[edit] Grasslandsareamongthemostthreatenedecosystems.[24]AccordingtotheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature(IUCN),themostsignificantthreattograsslandsishumanlanduse,especiallyagricultureandmining.[25] Causes[edit] Landuseintensification[edit] Grasslandshaveanextensivehistoryofhumanactivityanddisturbance.[26]Tofeedagrowinghumanpopulation,mostoftheworld'sgrasslandsareconvertedfromnaturallandscapestofieldsofcorn,wheatorothercrops.Grasslandsthathaveremainedlargelyintactthusfar,likeEastAfricansavannas,areindangerofbeinglosttoagriculture.[16]Grasslandsareverysensitivetodisturbances,suchaspeoplehuntingandkillingkeyspecies,orplowingthelandtomakemorespaceforfarms. Grasslandvegetationisoftenaplagioclimax;itremainsdominantinaparticularareausuallyduetograzing,cutting,ornaturalorman-madefires,alldiscouragingcolonizationbyandsurvivaloftreeandshrubseedlings.[27]Someoftheworld'slargestexpansesofgrasslandarefoundintheAfricansavanna,andthesearemaintainedbywildherbivoresaswellasbynomadicpastoralistsandtheircattle,sheeporgoats.Grasslandshaveanimpactonclimatechangebyslowerdecompositionratesoflittercomparedtoforestenvironments.[28] Mainland-covertrajectoriesfromthe1960sto2015 Grasslandsmayoccurnaturallyorasaresultofhumanactivity.Huntingculturesaroundtheworldoftensetregularfirestomaintainandextendgrasslandsandpreventfire-intoleranttreesandshrubsfromtakinghold.ThetallgrassprairiesintheU.S.MidwestmayhavebeenextendedeastwardintoIllinois,Indiana,andOhiobyhumanagency.MuchgrasslandinnorthwestEuropedevelopedaftertheNeolithicPeriodwhenpeoplegraduallyclearedtheforesttocreateareasforraisingtheirlivestock.[29] Climatechange[edit] Grasslandsoftenoccurinareaswithannualprecipitationisbetween600 mm(24 in)and1,500 mm(59 in)andaveragemeanannualtemperaturesrangesfrom−5and20 °C.[30]However,somegrasslandsoccurincolder(−20 °C)andhotter(30 °C)climaticconditions.Grasslandcanexistinhabitatsthatarefrequentlydisturbedbygrazingorfire,assuchdisturbancepreventstheencroachmentofwoodyspecies.[31]Speciesrichnessisparticularlyhighingrasslandsoflowsoilfertilitysuchasserpentinebarrensandcalcareousgrasslands,wherewoodyencroachmentispreventedaslownutrientlevelsinthesoilmayinhibitthegrowthofforestandshrubspecies.Anothercommonpredicamentoftenexperiencedbytheill-fatedgrasslandcreaturesistheconstantburningofplants,fueledbyoxygenandmanyexpiredphotosynthesizingorganisms,withthelackofrainpushingthisproblemtofurtherheights.[32]Whennotlimitedbyotherfactors,increasingCO2concentrationintheairincreasesplantgrowth,similarlyaswateruseefficiency,whichisveryimportantindrierregions.However,theadvantagesofelevatedCO2arelimitedbyfactorsincludingwateravailabilityandavailablenutrients,particularlynitrogen.ThuseffectsofelevatedCO2onplantgrowthwillvarywithlocalclimatepatterns,speciesadaptationstowaterlimitations,andnitrogenavailability.Studiesindicatethatnutrientdepletionmayhappenfasterindrierregions,andwithfactorslikeplantcommunitycompositionandgrazing.Nitrogendepositionfromairpollutantsandincreasedmineralizationfromhighertemperaturescanincreaseplantproductivity,butincreasesareoftenamongadiscountinbiodiversityasfaster-growingplantsoutcompeteothers.AstudyofaCaliforniagrasslandfoundthatglobalchangemayspeedreductionsindiversityandforbspeciesaremostpronetothisprocess.[19] Afforestationorintroductionofinvasivespecies[edit] Misguidedafforestationefforts,forexampleaspartoftheglobalefforttoincreasecarbonsequestration,canharmgrasslandsandtheircoreecosystemservices.[33][34]AmapcreatedbytheWorldResourcesInstituteincollaborationwiththeIUCNidentifies2billionhectaresforpotentialforestrestoration.Itiscriticisedforincluding900millionhectaresofgrasslands.[35][36]Itisexpectedthatnon-nativegrasseswillcontinuetooutperformnativespeciesunderwarmeranddrierconditionsthatoccurinmanygrasslandsduetoclimatechange.[37] Management[edit] Thetypeoflandmanagementusedingrasslandscanalsoleadtograsslandloss/degradation.Manygrasslandsandotheropenecosystemsdependondisturbancessuchaswildfires,controlledburnsand/orgrazingtopersist,althoughthissubjectisstillcontroversial.[38]AstudyinBrazilianSubtropicalHighlandGrasslandsfoundthatgrasslandswithouttraditionallandmanagement-whichusesfireeverytwoyearsandextensivecattlegrazing-candisappearwithin30years.[39]Thisstudyshowedthatgrasslandsinsideprotectedareas,inwhichfireisnotallowedandcattlegrazingisbanned,grasslandswerequicklyreplacedbyshrubs(shrubencroachment). Typesofdegradation[edit] Landcoverchange[edit] Landcoverhasalwayschangedduringtheyears.Thefollowingrelatestothechangesbetween1960and2015.Therehasbeenadecreaseinsemi-naturalgrasslandsandanincreaseinareaswitharableland,forestandlandusedforinfrastructureandbuildings.Thelinestyleandrelativethicknessofthelinesindicatesthepercentageofthetotalareathatchanged.Changeslessthan1%andland-coverclasseswithallchangeslessthan1%(i.e.semi-naturalwetlandsandwater)arenotincluded.[12] In1960mostoftheland,49.7%,wascoveredwithforestandtherewasalsomoresemi-naturalgrassland(18.8%)thanarableland(15.8%).In2015thishaschangeddrastically.Theforestcoverhasincreased(50.8%)andarablelandhasalsoincreased(20.4%),butthesemi-naturalgrasslandcoverhasdecreased.Althoughitstillcoversalargeareaoftheearth(10.6%).[12] Aquarterofsemi-naturalgrasslandwaslostthroughintensification,i.e.itwasconvertedintoarableorpasturelandandforests.[40]Itismorelikelythatintensificationwilloccurinflatsemi-naturalgrasslands,especiallyifthesoilisfertile.Ontheotherhand,grasslands,wherethelandisdrought-proneorlessproductive,aremorelikelytopersistassemi-naturalgrasslandsthangrasslandswithfertilesoilandlowgradientoftheterrain.[41]Furthermore,theaccessibilityofthelandisalsoimportant,asitistheneasiertofertilize,forexample.Forinstance,ifitislocatedneararoad.Withthedevelopmentoftechnology,itisbecomingincreasinglyeasytocultivatelandwithasteepergradient,tothedetrimentofgrasslands.Themanagementofgrasslandsisalsochangingpermanently.Thereisincreaseduseofmineralfertilizers,furthermorebordersandfieldedgesareremovedtoenlargefieldsandlevelingtheterraintofacilitatetheuseofagriculturalmachinery.[12] Theprofessionalstudyofdrygrasslandsfallsunderthecategoryofrangelandmanagement,whichfocusesonecosystemservicesassociatedwiththegrass-dominatedaridandsemi-aridrangelandsoftheworld.Rangelandsaccountforanestimated70%oftheearth'slandmass;thus,manyculturesincludingthoseoftheUnitedStatesareindebtedtotheeconomicsthattheworld'sgrasslandshavetooffer,fromproducinggrazinganimals,tourism,ecosystemsservicessuchascleanwaterandair,andenergyextraction.[42]Mainarticle:Bushencroachment Vastareasofgrasslandareaffectedbywoodyencroachment,whichistheexpansionofwoodyplantsattheexpenseoftheherbaceouslayer.Woodyencroachmentiscausedbyacombinationofhumanimpact(e.g.fireexclusion,overstockingandresultingovergrazing)andenvironmentalfactors(i.e.increasedCO2levelsintheatmosphere).Itcanhaveseverenegativeconsequencesonkeyecosystemservices,likelandproductivityandgroundwaterrecharge. Conservationandrestoration[edit] Despitegrowingrecognitionoftheimportanceofgrasslands,understandingofrestorationoptionsremainslimited.[43]Costofgrasslandretorationishighlyvariableandrespectivedataisscarce.[44]Successfulgrasslandrestorationhasseveraldimensions,includingrecognitioninpolicy,standardisationofindicatorsofdegradation,scientificinnovation,knowledgetransferanddatasharing.[45] Restorationmethodsandmeasuresincludethefollowing:[46] prescribedfires appropriatemanagementoflivestockandwildherbivores:inlightoflanduseintensificationcausedbyglobalfooddemand,grasslandlandusepracticesmayneedtobeadjustedtobettersupportkeyecosystemservices.[47] treecutting shrubremoval invasivespeciescontrol reintroductionofnativegrassesandforbsviaseedingortransplant:amainchallengeforgrasslandrestorationishowtoovercomeseedlimitation.[43] Fortheperiod2021–2030theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhasproclaimedtheUNDecadeonRestoration,involvingajointresolutionbyover70countries.ItisledbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandtheFoodandAgricultureOrganization.[48] Typesofgrasslands[edit] MeadowbytheDesnariverinUkraine Classificationsofgrassland[edit] GrasslandtypesbySchimper(1898,1903):[49] Meadow(hygrophilousortropophilousgrassland) Steppe(xerophilousgrassland) Savannah(xerophilousgrasslandcontainingisolatedtrees)Steppefamily:acommongrasslandanimal,theswiftfox GrasslandtypesbyEllenbergandMueller-Dombois(1967):[50] Formation-classV.Terrestrialherbaceouscommunities Savannasandrelatedgrasslands(tropicalorsubtropicalgrasslandsandparklands) Steppesandrelatedgrasslands(e.g.NorthAmerican"prairies"etc.) Meadows,pasturesorrelatedgrasslands Sedgeswampsandflushes Herbaceousandhalf-woodysaltswamps ForbvegetationAhikethroughtheTallgrassPrairieHeritageParkinCanada GrasslandtypesbyLaycock(1979):[51] Tallgrass(true)prairie Shortgrassprairie Mixed-grassprairie Shrubsteppe Annualgrassland Desert(arid)grassland Highmountaingrassland Generalgrasslandstypes[edit] Tropicalandsubtropical[edit] Thesegrasslandscanbeclassifiedasthetropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannasandshrublandsbiome.Therainfalllevelforthatgrasslandtypeisbetween90and150centimetersperyear.Grassesandscatteredtreesarecommonforthatecoregion,aswellaslargemammals,suchaswildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus)andzebra(Equuszebra).NotabletropicalandsubtropicalgrasslandsincludetheLlanosgrasslandsofSouthAmerica.[52]CumberlandPlainWoodland,agrassywoodlandthatcoversWesternSydney Temperate[edit] Mid-latitudegrasslands,includingtheprairieandPacificgrasslandsofNorthAmerica,thePampasofArgentina,BrazilandUruguay,calcareousdownland,andthesteppesofEurope.Theyareclassifiedwithtemperatesavannasandshrublandsasthetemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsbiome.Temperategrasslandsarethehometomanylargeherbivores,suchasbison,gazelles,zebras,rhinoceroses,andwildhorses.Carnivoreslikelions,wolves,cheetahsandleopardsarealsofoundintemperategrasslands.Otheranimalsofthisregionincludedeer,prairiedogs,mice,jackrabbits,skunks,coyotes,snakes,foxes,owls,badgers,blackbirds,grasshoppers,meadowlarks,sparrows,quails,hawksandhyenas.[53] Flooded[edit] Grasslandsthatarefloodedseasonallyoryear-round,liketheEvergladesofFlorida,thePantanalofBrazil,BoliviaandParaguayortheEsterosdelIberainArgentina,areclassifiedwithfloodedsavannasasthefloodedgrasslandsandsavannasbiomeandoccurmostlyinthetropicsandsubtropics.Thespeciesthatliveinthesegrasslandsarewelladaptedtothehydrologicregimesandsoilconditions.TheEverglades-theworld'slargestrain-fedfloodedgrassland-isrichin11,000speciesofseed-bearingplants,25speciesoforchids,300birdspecies,and150fishspecies. Water-meadowsaregrasslandsthataredeliberatelyfloodedforshortperiods.[54]GrasslandintheAntelopeValley,California Montane[edit] High-altitudegrasslandslocatedonhighmountainrangesaroundtheworld,likethePáramooftheAndesMountains.Theyarepartofthemontanegrasslandsandshrublandsbiomeandcanbetropical,subtropical,andtemperate.Theplantsandanimals,thatcanbefoundinthetropicalmontane,areabletoadapttocool,wetconditionsaswellasintensesunlight.[55] Tundragrasslands[edit] Similartomontanegrasslands,polarArctictundracanhavegrasses,buthighsoilmoisturemeansthatfewtundrasaregrass-dominatedtoday.However,duringthePleistoceneglacialperiods(commonlyreferredtoasiceages),agrasslandknownassteppe-tundraormammothsteppeoccupiedlargeareasoftheNorthernHemisphere.Theseareaswereverycoldandaridandfeaturedsub-surfacepermafrost(hencetundra)butwereneverthelessproductivegrasslandecosystemssupportingawidevarietyoffauna.AsthetemperatureincreasedandtheclimatebecamewetteratthebeginningoftheHolocenemuchofthemammothsteppetransitionedtoforest,whilethedrierpartsincentralEurasiaremainedasagrassland,becomingthemodernEurasiansteppe.[56] Desertandxeric[edit] Alsocalleddesertgrasslands,theyarecomposedofsparsegrasslandecoregionslocatedinthedesertsandxericshrublandsbiome.Temperatureextremesandlowamountofrainfallcharacterisethesekindsofgrasslands.Therefore,plantsandanimalsarewelladaptedtominimizewaterloss.[57] Temperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregions[edit] Thegrasslandecoregionsofthetemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsbiomeare: Afrotropicaltemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte AlHajarmontanewoodlands Oman,UnitedArabEmirates AmsterdamandSaint-PaulIslandstemperategrasslands AmsterdamIsland,Saint-PaulIsland TristandaCunha–GoughIslandsshrubandgrasslands TristandaCunha,GoughIsland Australasiantemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Canterbury–Otagotussockgrasslands NewZealand EasternAustraliamulgashrublands Australia SoutheastAustraliatemperatesavanna Australia Nearctictemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte CaliforniaCentralValleygrasslands UnitedStates Canadianaspenforestsandparklands Canada,UnitedStates CentralandSouthernmixedgrasslands UnitedStates Centralforest–grasslandstransition UnitedStates Centraltallgrasslands UnitedStates ColumbiaPlateau UnitedStates EdwardsPlateausavanna UnitedStates FlintHillstallgrasslands UnitedStates Montanavalleyandfoothillgrasslands UnitedStates NebraskaSandHillsmixedgrasslands UnitedStates Northernmixedgrasslands Canada,UnitedStates Northernshortgrasslands Canada,UnitedStates Northerntallgrasslands Canada,UnitedStates Palousegrasslands UnitedStates Texasblacklandprairies UnitedStates Westernshortgrasslands UnitedStates Neotropicaltemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte ArgentineEspinal Argentina ArgentineMonte Argentina HumidPampas Argentina,Uruguay Patagoniangrasslands Argentina,Chile Patagoniansteppe Argentina,Chile Semi-aridPampas Argentina Palearctictemperategrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Alai–WesternTianShansteppe Kazakhstan,Tajikistan,Uzbekistan Altaisteppeandsemi-desert Kazakhstan CentralAnatoliansteppe Turkey Daurianforeststeppe China,Mongolia,Russia EasternAnatolianmontanesteppe Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Iran,Turkey EminValleysteppe China,Kazakhstan FaroeIslandsborealgrasslands FaroeIslands,Denmark Gissaro–Alaiopenwoodlands Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Uzbekistan Kazakhforeststeppe Kazakhstan,Russia Kazakhsteppe Kazakhstan,Russia KazakhUplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchuriangrassland China,Mongolia,Russia Ponticsteppe Kazakhstan,Moldova,Romania,Russia,Ukraine,Bulgaria SayanIntermontanesteppe Russia Selenge–Orkhonforeststeppe Mongolia,Russia SouthSiberianforeststeppe Russia Syrianxericgrasslandsandshrublands Iraq,Jordan,Syria TianShanfoothillaridsteppe China,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan Tropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregions[edit] Afrotropicaltropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Angolanmiombowoodlands Angola Angolanmopanewoodlands Angola,Namibia Ascensionscrubandgrasslands AscensionIsland CentralZambezianmiombowoodlands Angola,Burundi,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Malawi,Tanzania,Zambia EastSudaniansavanna Cameroon,CentralAfricanRepublic,Chad,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Eritrea,Ethiopia,SouthSudan,Sudan,Uganda Easternmiombowoodlands Mozambique,Tanzania Guineanforest–savannamosaic Benin,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,Gambia,Ghana,Guinea,GuineaBissau,IvoryCoast,Nigeria,Senegal,Togo Itigi–Sumbuthicket Tanzania,Zambia KalahariAcacia-Baikiaeawoodlands Botswana,Namibia,SouthAfrica,Zimbabwe MandaraPlateaumosaic Cameroon,Nigeria NorthernAcacia–Commiphorabushlandsandthickets Ethiopia,Kenya,SouthSudan,Uganda NorthernCongolianforest–savannamosaic Cameroon,CentralAfricanRepublic,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,SouthSudan,Uganda SahelianAcaciasavanna BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,Chad,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Mali,Mauritania,Niger,Nigeria,Senegal,SouthSudan,Sudan Serengetivolcanicgrasslands Kenya,Tanzania SomaliAcacia–Commiphorabushlandsandthickets Eritrea,Ethiopia,Kenya,Somalia SouthArabianfogwoodlands,shrublands,anddune Oman,SaudiArabia,Yemen SouthernAcacia–Commiphorabushlandsandthickets Kenya,Tanzania SouthernAfricabushveld Botswana,SouthAfrica,Zimbabwe SouthernCongolianforest–savannamosaic Angola,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo Southernmiombowoodlands Malawi,Mozambique,Zambia,Zimbabwe SaintHelenascrubandwoodlands SaintHelena VictoriaBasinforest–savannamosaic Burundi,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Ethiopia,Kenya,Rwanda,SouthSudan,Tanzania,Uganda WestSudaniansavanna Benin,BurkinaFaso,Gambia,Ghana,Guinea,Mali,IvoryCoast,Niger,Nigeria,Senegal WesternCongolianforest–savannamosaic Angola,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,RepublicoftheCongo WesternZambeziangrasslands Angola,Zambia Zambezianandmopanewoodlands Botswana,eSwatini(Swaziland),Malawi,Mozambique,Namibia,SouthAfrica,Zambia,Zimbabwe ZambezianBaikiaeawoodlands Angola,Botswana,Namibia,Zambia,Zimbabwe Australasiantropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte ArnhemLandtropicalsavanna Australia Brigalowtropicalsavanna Australia CapeYorkPeninsulatropicalsavanna Australia Carpentariatropicalsavanna Australia EinasleighUplandssavanna Australia Kimberleytropicalsavanna Australia Mitchellgrassdowns Australia Trans-Flysavannaandgrasslands Indonesia,PapuaNewGuinea VictoriaPlainstropicalsavanna Australia Indomalayantropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Terai–Duarsavannaandgrasslands Bhutan,India,Nepal Nearctictropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte WesternGulfcoastalgrasslands Mexico,UnitedStates Neotropicaltropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Benisavanna Bolivia Camposrupestres Brazil Cerrado Bolivia,Brazil,Paraguay ClippertonIslandshrubandgrasslands ClippertonIslandisanoverseasterritoryofFrance Córdobamontanesavanna Argentina Guianansavanna Brazil,Guyana,Venezuela GranChaco Argentina,Brazil,Paraguay,Bolivia Llanos Venezuela,Colombia Uruguayansavanna Argentina,Brazil,Uruguay Oceaniantropicalandsubtropicalgrasslands,savannas,andshrublandsecoregionsvte Hawaiiantropicalhighshrublands Hawaiʻi Hawaiiantropicallowshrublands Hawaiʻi NorthwesternHawaiiscrub Hawaiʻi,MidwayAtoll Seealso[edit] Meadow Forest References[edit] 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Furtherreading[edit] Courtwright,Julie.2011.PrairieFire:AGreatPlainsHistory.UniversityPressofKansas.274pp. French,N.R.(ed.).1979.PerspectivesinGrasslandEcology.Springer,NewYork,204pp.,[3]. Suttie,J.M.;Reynolds,S.G.;C.Batello.2005.Grasslandsoftheworld.Rome:FAO.[4]. Wilsey,B.J.2018.BiologyofGrasslands.OxfordUniversityPress WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoGrasslands. vtePhytogeography:VegetationclassificationPhysiognomy Forests,woodlands,arboretum Shrublands,scrubs,thickets,fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland,subshrublands,dwarf-scrubs,suffruticetum Herbaceouscommunities,grasslands,steppes,prairies,herbetum Savannas,parklands Scarcelyvegetatedareas,desertvegetation Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climaticregime Pluvial,rainy,ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Lossofleaves Deciduous,caducifolious Semi-deciduous,semicaducifolious Evergreen,perennifolious Leafhardness Sclerophyll,stiffleaves Orthophyll,hyptiophyllleaves Leafform Aciculifolious,needle-leaved Latifolious,broad-leaved Substrate Terrestrialvegetation Aquaticvegetation Riparian Mangrove Swampy Seealso Biogeographicrealms Biomes Floristickingdoms Planthabits Plantlife-forms Vegetation AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries Israel UnitedStates Japan Other NationalArchives(US) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grassland&oldid=1097183540" Categories:GrasslandsGrassesPoaceaeEcoregionsAgriculturallandPlainsHiddencategories:CS1maint:othersArticlescontainingGerman-languagetextWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataCommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithNARAidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AfrikaansالعربيةAsturianuবাংলাBân-lâm-gúབོད་ཡིགBosanskiCatalàCebuanoDanskDeutschEestiEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiItalianoעבריתMagyarമലയാളംꯃꯤꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟမြန်မာဘာသာNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskਪੰਜਾਬੀPolskiPortuguêsRunaSimiРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenščinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSvenskaதமிழ்TaqbaylitไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаVahcuenghTiếngViệtWinaray吴语粵語中文 Editlinks