The Fluidity of Time: Scientists Uncover How Emotions Alter ...

The study of time perception serves as a hallmark of integrative science, mixing linguistics, cognitive neuroscience, and attention research ... Observer>2018>October>TheFluidityofTime:ScientistsUncoverHowEmotionsAlterTimePerception Humanshaveafitfulrelationshipwiththeclock,ifmodernidiomsareanyindication.Timeflieswhenwe’rehavingfun.Itdragswhenwe’rebored.Sometimesit’sonourside;othertimesit’sracingagainstus. Thegapbetweenhowtimepassesandhowweexperienceithasengagedpsychologicalscientistsformorethan150years.PioneersinpsychophysicssuchasGustavTheodorFechnerandErnstHeinrichWebersetthefoundationsforthislineofresearchinthe1800sastheyexploredtheintricaciesofhumanperception. Flashforwardtothe21stcentury,andthestudyoftimeperceptionservesasahallmarkofintegrativeresearch,mixinglinguistics,neuroscience,cognitivepsychology,andattentionresearchtoexplorethewayspeoplefeeltheminutesandhourspass. TheInternalTimekeeper Fordecades,scientistsconceptualizedtimeperceptionaccordingtotheoreticalmodelsthatessentiallypositedabiologicalstopwatchinthebrain,whichslowedandacceleratedinlinewithattentionandarousal.Morerecently,researchershavebeensearchingfortheprecisebrainareasresponsibleforinternaltimekeeping.UsingnewertechnologiessuchasfunctionalMRI,scientistssuchasAPSFellowWarrenH.MeckatDukeUniversityhaveconcludedthatalargenetworkofneuralareas,notjustasinglebrainstructure,underliestimeprocessing.AndneuroscientistsinEurope,includingNobellaureateEdvardMoser,havebeenusingoptogenetics(abiologicaltechniqueusedtocontrolandmonitorindividualneurons)withmicetoidentifyspecificbrainregionsthataffectoursubjectivetimekeeping. Inthemidstoftheneuroscientificfocusontimeperception,scientistscontinuetorecognizetheintegralrolethathappiness,sadness,fear,andotheremotionsplayinthewaywefeelthepassingofsecondsandminutes.APSJamesMcKeenCattellFellowMihalyCsikszentmihalyiofClaremontGraduateUniversityfirstidentifiedthewayenjoyableexperiencescanaffectourfocusontime.Csikszentmihalyifamouslycoinedtheterm“flow”todescribetheexperienceofbeingsohappilyimmersedinanactivity—beitathletics,work,oracreativeproject—thatalldistractionsareshutout.Akeyfeatureoftheflowexperienceisadistortedsenseoftime—typicallyafeelingthattimehaspassedfasterthanusual. Subsequentresearchhasidentifiedthesheerpursuitofrewards,fromexperiencestomaterialgoods,asaningredientfortemporalillusions.Thesestudiesoftenincorporatetheoddballeffect—aphenomenoninwhichencounteringnovelstimuliinflatesperceiveddurations.DartmouthUniversitypsychologicalscientistPeterUlricTseandcolleaguesdemonstratedthiseffectin2004whentheyshowedresearchparticipantsrepetitiveimagesflashingonacomputerscreen,followedbyasinglenovelimage.Althoughalltheimagesstayedonthescreenforthesameamountoftime,participantsreportedthattheoddballimageseemedtolastlongerthantheothers. PsychologicalscientistsintheNetherlandsrecentlydemonstratedtheinfluenceofpotentialrewardstiedtotheoddballeffect.Inaseriesoflabexperiments,MichelFailingandJanTheeuwesofVrijeUniversiteitAmsterdamshowedparticipantsaseriesofimages,oneofwhichwasdifferentfromtherest.Theparticipantsindicatedwhethertheoddballimagestayedonscreenforalongerorshorterperiodthantherestoftheimages.Whentheycouldearnarewardforacorrectanswerintheformofalargenumberofpoints,theyperceivedtheoddballimagesasprolongedcomparedwithoddballsthatearnedthemnopoints. ThePursuitofPleasure Beingpresentedwiththeopportunitytoearnarewardmaymakesecondsorminutesseemprolonged,butdesiremayhavearatherdifferenteffect,accordingtoa2012studyconductedattheUniversityofAlabama.Inaseriesofexperiments,psychologicalscientistsPhilipGableandBryanPooleexamined“approachmotivation,”thedrivetoachievegoals,positiveexperiences,orvitalresourcessuchasfoodandwater.Relativetoneutralstatesorpositivestateswithlowapproachmotivation,positivestateswithhighapproachmotivationshortenedperceptionsoftime,theyfound. Inoneoftheexperiments,theresearcherstrainedparticipantstotellthedifferencebetweenpicturesshownfora‘short’(e.g.,400ms)ora‘long’(upto1600ms)periodoftime.Theparticipantsthenviewedpicturesthatwereneutral(geometricshapes),positiveandlowinapproachmotivation(flowers),orpositiveandhighinapproachmotivation(deliciousdesserts).Foreachpicture,theyhadtoindicatewhetherthepicturehadbeendisplayedforashortorlongperiodoftime. Justastheresearchershypothesized,theparticipantsperceivedtheenticingpicturesofdessertsashavingbeendisplayedforashorteramountoftime(regardlessoftheactualduration)thaneithertheneutralgeometricshapesorthepleasingpicturesofflowers. Theresearchersalsofoundthattheperceivedamountoftimefortheenticingpictureswasrelatedtowhenparticipantshadeatenthatday.Thoseparticipantswhohadeatenrecently,whichpresumablyloweredtheirapproachmotivationforfood,judgedthedessertpicturesashavingbeendisplayedforlongerperiodsoftimethandidtheirhungrierpeers. Asecondstudy,inwhichparticipantsreportedtimeaspassingfasterwhentheylookedatthedessertpictureswiththeexpectationthattheywouldbeabletoeatthosedessertslater,confirmedthesefindings. GableandPooleproposethatstateshighinapproachmotivationmakeusfeelasthoughtimeispassingquicklybecausetheynarrowourmemoryandattentionprocesses,helpingustoshutoutirrelevantthoughtsandfeelings. “Justbeingcontentorsatisfiedmaynotmaketimefly,”Gablesaidwhenthestudywaspublished,“butbeingexcitedoractivelypursuingadesiredobjectcan.” Thestudyauthorssuggestthisphenomenonmayhaveahelpfulfunction:Ifreachingagoalrequireswaitingorsustainedhardworkacrossaperiodoftime,itwouldbeanadvantageifthatperiodseemsbrief. TakingaPause Otherpositiveemotionsmayhavetheoppositeeffectontimeperception,studiesshow.In2012,behavioralscienceresearchersfromStanfordUniversityandtheUniversityofMinnesotapublishedtheirresultsfromatrioofexperimentsexaminingtheconsequencesofawe-filledexperiences.Theparticipantsintheseexperimentsengagedinactivitiessuchaswatchingawe-inspiringvideosofpeopleineverydaysituationsencounteringandinteractingwithhugeanimalsorwatchingwaterfalls,forexample.Comparedwithparticipantswhocompletedlessawe-inspiringactivities,participantsintheaweconditionsreportedfeelingtimepassingmoreslowly.Additionalfindingsfromtheexperimentssuggestthatawecausedpeopletofeelmore“inthemoment”andledthemtoseetimeasmoreabundant. Natureitselfmayslowoursenseoftime.Inaseriesofstudies,psychologicalresearchersatCarletonUniversityinCanadatestedwhetherpeopleperceivedtimemovingmoreslowlyinnaturecomparedwithurbansettings.Inexperimentsthatincludedbothvirtualandactualenvironments,participantsexperiencedwalkingthrougheithernaturalsurroundingssuchasaforesttrailorbustlingurbanlocationssuchasNewYorkCity.Theyestimatedthedurationoftheexperiencesinminutesandseconds.Thefirstthreeexperimentsinvolvedimagery,andresearchersfoundnosignificantdifferenceinestimatesofactualtimedurationbetweenthenatureandurbanconditions.Butinallthreestudies,theparticipantsinthenatureconditionreportedfeelingaslowerpassageoftimecomparedwiththoseintheurbansetting.Andwhentheresearchersactuallytookparticipantsforwalksineithernaturalorurbansettings,thoseinthenatureconditionreportedlongerobjectiveandsubjectiveperceptionsofelapsedtime.Individualsinthenatureconditionalsoreportedfeelingmorerelaxedthanthoseintheurbancondition. Fear Ofallthehumanemotions,fearisthemostintensivelyexaminedinstudiesoftimejudgment,accordingtoSylvieDroit-Volet,aprofessorindevelopmentalandcognitivepsychologyatUniversitéClermontAuvergne,France,andoneofthemostprolificresearchersonemotionsandtimeperception. Indeed,neuroscientistandauthorDavidEaglemanfamouslyshowedaconnectionbetweenfearandtimeillusionsseveralyearsago.Eaglemanstrappedchronometricdevicestoexperimentparticipants’wristsandsentthemona15-storydroponanamusementparkride.Whenaskedlater,mostindividualsoverestimatedthedurationofthefall. Scientistshypothesizethatthreateningstimuli—themostinnatelydisturbingformsofnovelty—causeintensephysiologicalreactionsthatdistortourinternalsenseofthepassageoftime.Inastudypublishedin2011,Droit-Voletandhercolleagueshaduniversitystudentsratetheirmoodsbothbeforeandaftershowingthemdifferentvideosegmentsthatinducedamoodoffear,oneofsadness,oraneutralemotion.Inthe“fear”session,theparticipantswatchedclipsfromhorrormoviesincludingScreamandTheShining.Inthe“sad”session,theywatchedsegmentsofheartrendingdramassuchasPhiladelphiaandCityofAngels.Andthe“neutral”sessioninvolvedinformationalvideos(e.g.,weatherforecastsandstockmarketupdates).Asexpected,thehorrorfilmsinducedfeelingsoffearamongthestudents,whilethedramasinducedsadnessandtheneutralclipsspurredminimalemotionaleffects. Inaddition,justbeforeandafterviewingeachsetofvideocategories,theparticipantshadtoestimatethedurationofastimulus(bluedot).Droit-Voletandcolleaguesfounddistortionintimejudgmentaftercomparedwithbefore(baselineestimates)viewingthescaryfilms,whilenochangeintimejudgmentwasobservedafterviewingthesadandneutralfilmclips.Undertheinfluenceoffear,participantsjudgedthestimulusdurationsaslonger.Theresultssuggestthatfeardistortsourexperienceoftimeinordertobepreparedtoactasfastaspossibleincaseofdanger. APSJamesMcKeenCattellFellowRichardA.Bryantdemonstratedthiseffectinthefield10yearsagowhenheandthen-graduatestudentLeahA.Campbellconductedastudyinvolvingmorethan60peoplewhowentskydivingforthefirsttime.BryantandCampbellaskedtheparticipantstoratetheirlevelsofbothfearandexcitementastheypreparedtoembark.Thirtyminutesaftercompletingtheir14,000-footjump,thenovicesestimated,inminutes,thetimethathadelapsedfromthemomenttheybeganputtingontheirskydivinggeartothemomenttheylanded.Thosewhohadratedthemselveshigheronthefearscaleprovidedlongertimeestimatesfortheexperiencecomparedwiththosewhoscoredhighonexcitement. TheTimeAhead Increasingly,researchersaretakingacloserlookatthebraintobetterunderstandtherelationshipbetweenemotionandtimeperception.Neurotransmitterssuchasdopamineandnorepinephrine,whichplayrolesinrewardandthreatresponses,respectively,aredrawingparticularinterest.Theworkholdssignificantpromiseforresearchintothesymptomsofmentalandmotordisordersthathavebeenlinkedtobothabnormaldopaminelevelsandimpairedtimeperception.Andneuroimaging,whencombinedwithemergingstatisticaltechniques,mayhelpuncovernewinsightsintoindividualdifferencesinsubjectivetimeexperience,WilliamJ.MatthewsofCambridgeUniversitywrotewithMeckina2014article. Otherempiricalpursuitsaretakingalongerview,focusingonhowweexperiencepassingmonthsandyearsratherthantheminutesthatelapseduringacarcrashorawalkdownthebeach.Theresearchalsohasimportantimplicationsforourunderstandingofclinicalconditionssuchasattention-deficit/hyperactivityandpost-traumaticstressdisorders,depression,andschizophrenia,allofwhichareassociatedwitherratictemporalawareness. Timeperceptionisevenshowingupasanoutcomemeasureforotherpsychologicalphenomena,includingsocialinteractions.Ina2015study,forexample,psychologicalscientistsledbyAPSFellowGordonB.MoskowitzofLehighUniversityshowedevidencethatWhitepeople—particularlythosewhoworryaboutappearingracist—perceivetimeasslowerwhenobservingfacesofBlackmen.Thiscouldpossiblyexplainarangeofexamplesofimplicitbiases,suchasdoctorsunintentionallyspendinglesstimewithBlackpatientscomparedwithWhitepatients,theyreportinPsychologicalScience. Discoveriesabouttemporalillusionsholdimplicationsforaseeminglyendlessstreamoflifeactivities.Beneathindividuals’effortstostaypatientinjammedtraffic,setasidequalitytimewithfamilyandfriends,meetadeadline,orevengiveanaccurateeyewitnessreportlieourpersonalestimatesofthesecondsandminutestickingforward. References Campbell,L.A.,&Bryant,R.A.(2006).Howtimeflies:Astudyofnoviceskydivers.BehaviourResearchandTherapy,45,1389–1392.doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.011 Davydenko,M.,&Peetz,J.(2017).Timegrowsontrees:Theeffectofnaturesettingsontimeperception.JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology,54,20–26.doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.09.003 Droit-Volet,S.(2013).Timeperception,emotionsandmooddisorders.JournalofPhysiology–Paris,107,255–264.doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2013.03.005 Droit-Volet,S.,Fayolle,S.L.,&Gil,S.(2011).Emotionandtimeperception:Effectsoffilm-inducedmood.FrontiersinIntegrativeNeuroscience,5,33.doi:10.3389/fnint.2011.00033 Failing,M.,&Theeuwes,J.(2016).Rewardalterstheperceptionoftime.Cognition,148,19–26. Gable,P.A.,&Poole,B.D.(2012).Timeflieswhenyou’rehavingapproach-motivatedfun.PsychologicalScience,23,879–886.doi:10.1177/0956797611435817 Matthews,W.J.,&Meck,W.H.(2014).Timeperception:Thebadnewsandthegood.WIREsCognitiveScience,5,429–446.doi:10.1002/wcs.1298. Moskowitz,G.B.,OlcaysoyOkten,I.,&Gooch,C.M.(2015).Onraceandtime.PsychologicalScience,26,1783–1794.doi:10.1177/0956797615599547 Rudd,M.,Vohs,K.D.,&Aaker,J.(2012).Aweexpandspeople’sperceptionoftime,altersdecisionmaking,andenhanceswell-being.PsychologicalScience,23,1130–1136.doi:10.1177/0956797612438731 Tse,P.U.,Intriligator,J.,Rivest,J.,&Cavanaugh,P.(2014).Attentionandthesubjectiveexpansionoftime.Perception&Psychophysics,66,1171–1189.   HavingFunWhenTimeFlies Whilemanytime-perceptionstudiesshowhowemotionalcuescanalteranindividual’sestimateoftimepassed,somehavetakenanoppositeapproachanddemonstratedhowmanipulatingtheclockitselfcanaffectengagementandenjoyment. Inasetofexperimentsconductednearlyadecadeago,undergraduateparticipantswereassignedtoavarietyofconditionsinwhichtheyengagedinsuchtasksas: completingwordpuzzles; listeningtoshortclipsofannoyingsounds; listeningtoandratingasongtheychosefromalistof12popularselections;and readingandthenrecallingdetailsfromfabricatedscientificnewsarticlesrelatedtotime. Foreachexperiment,thepsychologicalresearchersledbyAaronM.SackettattheUniversityofSt.ThomasinMinnesotamanipulatedexternaltimecues(e.g.,artificiallyacceleratingordeceleratingtimersdisplayedonacomputerscreen).Sackettandhiscolleaguesfoundthatparticipantswhoreportedfeelingtimepassingunexpectedlyquicklyratedtasksaremoreengaging,noisesaslessirritating,andsongsasmoreenjoyablecomparedwiththosecuedtoperceivetimedragging. Sackettandcolleaguessaidtheresultssuggestthat“felttimedistortionoperatesasametacognitivecuethatpeopleimplicitlyattributetotheirenjoymentofanexperience(i.e.,timeflew,sotheexperiencemusthavebeenfun).” Reference Sackett,A.M.,Meyvis,T.,Nelson,L.D.,Converse,B.A.,&Sackett,A.L.(2010).You’rehavingfunwhentimeflies:Thehedonicconsequencesofsubjectivetimeprogression.PsychologicalScience,21,111–117.doi:10.1177/0956797609354832 Observer>2018>October>TheFluidityofTime:ScientistsUncoverHowEmotionsAlterTimePerception Comments ThomasZentall October1,2018 Pigeonstooshowtimedistortions.Usingatemporalbisectiontaskinwhichthepigeonslearnedtochoosearedlightwhenthetargetstimuluswasonfor2sandagreenlightwhenthestimuluswasonfor10s,wethentesteddurationsinbetween.Whenthepigeonswererequiredtopeckthetarget,durationswerejudgedasshorterthanwhentheywererequiredtorefrainfrompeckingthetarget. Zentall,T.R.,&Singer,R.A.(2008).Requiredpeckingandrefrainingfrompeckingaltersjudgmentsoftimebypigeons.Learning&Behavior,36,55-61. Reply Helenspencer March2,2019 Griefmakestimewarp.Forexample,ifyou’vejustwitnessedorreceivednewsofalovedonepassingaway,it’sasiftimestandsstill. Duringtheinitial‘shock’ofgriefitisdifficulttocomprehendhowotherscancontinuetogoabouttheirdailyliveswhilstyou’reinthemidstofsuchcatastrophiccircumstances. Ihavetowonderwhetherwecouldeasetheburdenofgriefifwecouldpossiblyfindawaytoresetourperceptionoftime. Reply AmitabhGhatak August1,2019 Excellent Reply APSregularlyopenscertainonlinearticlesfordiscussiononourwebsite.EffectiveFebruary2021,youmustbealogged-inAPSmembertopostcomments.Bypostingacomment,youagreetoourCommunityGuidelinesandthedisplayofyourprofileinformation,includingyournameandaffiliation.Anyopinions,findings,conclusions,orrecommendationspresentinarticlecommentsarethoseofthewritersanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofAPSorthearticle’sauthor.Formoreinformation,pleaseseeourCommunityGuidelines. PleaseloginwithyourAPSaccounttocomment.Login Related NSFGrantSubmissionDeadlines PsychologicalscientistslookingtoapplyforfundingfromtheUSNationalScienceFoundationmaybeinterestedinupcoming2021deadlines. MightyMitochondria Thepowerhouseofthecellcouldalsoholdthesecretstohealthyaging. EmergingMethodsinNeuroscienceResearch Thehumanbraincontainsmorethan100billionneuronsandtrillionsofconnections.Inthesesixarticles,weexplorehowpsychologicalscientistsareunpackingitsmysteriesinresearchlabsallovertheworld. 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