Working memory training - Wikipedia

Working memory training is intended to improve a person's working memory. Working memory is a central intellectual faculty, linked to IQ, ageing, ... Workingmemorytraining FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Workingmemorytrainingisintendedtoimproveaperson'sworkingmemory.Workingmemoryisacentralintellectualfaculty,linkedtoIQ,ageing,andmentalhealth.Ithasbeenclaimedthatworkingmemorytrainingprogramsareeffectivemeans,bothfortreatingspecificmedicalconditionsassociatedwithworkingmemorydeficit,asandforgeneralincreaseincognitivecapacityamonghealthyneurotypicaladults. Individualstudiesofthetopicshowdifferent,andsometimecontradictory,results,andasonemetastudyputsit,[1]askingthequestion“Doescognitivetrainingimproveintelligence?”isasinappropriateasasking“Doesmedicinecuredisease?”,sincenoneofthemspecifywhichparticularintervention(whichmedicineorworkingmemorytrainingprogram)isbeingevaluated,foralleviatingwhichconditionisitapplied(ADHD,stroke,generalcognitiveimprovementetc),andunderwhatcircumstancesisitadministered(selectioncriteria,adherencerate,outcomevariablesetc). Inaninfluentialmetastudyfrom2012,highlycriticaltocognitivetraining,analysed23studieswith30groupcomparisons,andconcludedthatclinicalmemorytrainingprogramsproducereliableshort-termimprovementsinworkingmemoryskillsinchildrenandadultswithADHD,butalsothatthereisnoevidencethatsucheffectscanbemaintainedlong-termwithoutadditionalfollow-uptraining.[2]Threeyearslater,anothermetastudyreachedtheoppositeconclusion,thatworkingmemorytrainingdohaveconsistentandusefuleffects,notjustonthetypeofworkingmemoryteststhatarepracticed,butalsoatothernontrainedtasksandeverydaylife.[3]Sincethen,arangeofadditionalclinicalexperimentshavebeencompleted,withlargersamplesizes,clearlydefinedcontrolgroups,andmoreuniformtreatmentofoutcomevariables.Whiletheevidenceisstillfarfromunanimous,thereareseveralexperimentalstudiesofworkingmemorytrainingthathaveshownbeneficialeffectsforpeoplewithADHD,[4][5]thosewhohavesufferedstrokeortraumaticbraininjury,[6][7]childrenwhohaveundergonecancertreatment,[8][9]aswellasfornormallydevelopingchildren.[10][11] Contents 1Workingmemory 2Tasks 3Strategies 4Trainingsetupandevaluation 5Transfereffects 6History 7ADHDcontroversy 8References 9Furtherreading Workingmemory[edit] Mainarticle:Workingmemory Workingmemory(WM)isthesystemwhichholdsmultiplepiecesoftransitoryinformationinthemind–informationthatisneededfordifferenttasksrightnow.Workingmemorydiffersfromshort-termmemoryinthatitisthestorageandmanipulationofinformation,whileshort-termissolelythestorageofinformationinareadilyavailablestate.Thereforeshort-termmemoryisacomponentofworkingmemory.[12]WorkingMemorycapacityisusuallyassessedbydeterminingthenumberofpiecesofinformationapersoncanholdinmind.Forexample,apersonmightbeaskedtolistentoaseriesofdigitsandletters,sortthemintoorderinmind,andthenrecallthesortedlistaloud.Thelongestsetofcharactersorotheritemsthatcanreliablyberecalledistheworkingmemorycapacity.[13] Thecapacityofworkingmemorydiffersbetweenpeople:apersonabletorecall8instructionshasagreaterworkingmemorycapacitythansomeonewhocanonlyrecallaseriesoffive.Numerousscientificstudieshavelinkedworkingmemorycapacitywithstrengthinotherfundamentalcognitiveabilities,includingattentionandintelligence.[14][15] Conversely,poorworkingmemoryisassumedtobeoneofthecoredeficitsinADHDaswellasanumberoflearningdisabilities.[16][17] Tasks[edit] Workingmemorytrainingtasksareconductedoncomputersandareoftenpairedwithpositivereinforcement,feedbackoftheindividual'sperformance,[18]andothermotivationalfeaturessuchasdisplayingtheindividual'scurrentscorebesidetheirpersonalbestscore.[19]Practicingthesetasksdemandsnumerousprocessessuchasencoding,inhibition,maintenance,manipulation,shiftingandcontrollingattention,andtheabilitytomanagetwotaskssimultaneouslyordividingattention.[20]Possibleformsofthetasksincluderecallingaseriesoflocationsofitemsonthescreen,recallingdigitsorlettersineithertheorderpresentedorreverseorder,[19]orrecallingspecificallywhereaparticularnumberordigitwasinasequence.[18]Computersareadditionallyprogrammedtoadjustthedifficultyofthetasktotheindividual'sperformancewitheachtrialinordertomaximizelearningandoverallimprovement.Iftheindividualdoespoorerononetrial,thedifficultywilldecrease.Similarly,iftheindividualexcelsonthenextfewtrials,thedifficultywillincrease.Twowaysofalteringthedifficultyareadjustingthenumberofstimulitoberememberedandaddingvisualdistractions.[21] Strategies[edit] Commonstrategiesusedinworkingmemorytrainingincluderepetitionofthetasks,givingfeedbacksuchastipstoimproveone'sperformancetoboththeparentsandtheindividual,positivereinforcementfromthoseconductingthestudyaswellasparentsthroughpraiseandrewarding,[18]andthegradualadjustmentofthetaskdifficultyfromtrialtotrial.Moreexplicitlyusedstrategiesbytheindividualincluderehearsalofmaterial,chunking,pairingmentalimageswiththematerial,mnemonics,andothermeta-cognitivestrategies.[22][23]Thelatterstrategieshavebeenlearnedandthereisaconsciousawarenessoftheiruse. Trainingsetupandevaluation[edit] Beforetrainingcommencesparticipantscompletepre-trainingverbalandvisuo-spatialtasks,whichareadditionallycompletedinthestudy'sfollow-upaspost-trainingtasks.Pre-trainingandpost-trainingtasksvary,somestudiesuseverbalandvisuo-spatialtasksalongwithslightlydifferenttasks;referredtoas"nontrainedtasks."Klingbergetal.[21]usedvisuo-spatialtasks,aSpanboard,theStrooptask,Raven'scolouredprogressivematrices,andachoicereactiontimetask,duringpre-trainingandpost-training.Holmesetal.[19]usedanonwordrecalltask,mazesmemorytask,listeningrecall,andthe"oddone-out"task.Byusingtasksthatdifferfromonesinthestudy,laboratoryresultscandemonstratetransfereffectsifhighscoresareachieved,sincethesewerenotlearnedduringtraining. Thetrainingitselfissetupinstudiessothatparticipantsattendasetnumberofsessionsoveragivenperiodoftimethatwidelyvariesbetweenstudies.Thiscanvaryanywherefromtwoweekstoaspanofeightweeks.Thetimespentinsessionsalsoranges,withsomestudiesbeingasshortasfifteenminutestootherstudieslastingfortyminutes.Studiescantakeplaceinthelab,orevenathomewithresearcherskeepingintouchthroughweeklyphonecalls.[18]Thereisnouniversalwaytosetupthetrainingschedule,sinceallschedulestendedtovarytoatleasttosomedegree.Theeffectsaretestedimmediatelyaftertrainingiscompletedandagainafewmonthsafter,orevenuptoayearlater,toseeifthetrainingoutcomesarestillinplace.Testingandevaluationcanbebasedonthemeasuresofacademicefficiency,ratingsoftheindividual'ssymptomsfromteachersandparents,comparingtheexperimentaltothecontrolgroupsofthestudy,andself-reportmeasures. Transfereffects[edit] Therearemanypossibletransfereffectsfromworkingmemorytraining.Anincreaseinworkingmemorycapacitycouldmakeindividualsmorelikelytotakeontasksthathaveahigherworkingmemoryload,suchasmathandotherchallengingacademics.[24]Holmesetal.[25]reportedanimprovementinmathematicalreasoning,evensixmonthsaftertrainingwascompleted.Furthermore,therehasbeenparentreporteddecreasesofinattentivebehaviours,hyperactivity,andimpulsivityinchildrenwithADHD,[24]inadditiontoadecreaseinmotoractivity.[21]Howeverthemajorityoftransfereffectsareseeninlab-basednontrainedtasksthatarecompletedduringfollow-upandimmediatelyaftertrainingisover.Ameta-analysisinto30studiesassessingtheeffectsofvariousWorkingMemoryTrainingfoundthatWMtraininghasshorttermreliableeffectsbuttheeffectivenessinthelongtermislimited.[26]Anotherstudyfoundthatusingademandingactionvideogamecouldbebeneficialtobasicprocessessuchasspatialcognitionandrapidperceptionbutthatusinganon-action3Dpuzzlegameshowedimprovementsthatwerenottransferablefromthegameitself.[27]Findingsfromtheseresultsvaryaccordingtowhichnontrainedtaskstheresearcherchoosestouse.Themaingeneralfindinginthesestudiesconfirmsthatexperimentalgroupsimproveontrainedtasksincomparisontocontrolgroups,andthateffectswillneedretrainingtomaintain.[24] Alongwithreporteddecreasesofinattentivebehaviours,hyperactivity,andimpulsivityinchildrenwithADHD,apilotstudydoneonadultsafterexperiencingastrokefoundthatsystematicworkingmemorytrainingcanimproveworkingmemoryandattention.Thisstudyalsocontainedaself-ratingonsymptomsofcognitivefailuresbothbeforeandafterthestudy.Eightoutofthenineparticipantsthatcompletedthestudyreportedlesscognitivefailuresoccurringinthepost-studyratingcomparedtopriortothestudy.Overall,thepilotstudyconcludesthatworkingmemorytraininginadultpatientsthathavepreviouslyhadastrokecanbothimprovetheircognitivefunctionasmeasuredbyneuropsychologicaltestsaswellasimprovementsinsubjectivereportsofcognitivefailures.[28] Studieshavealsoproventhatworkingmemorytrainingcanpossiblyhelptoimprovedeficitsinworkingmemorycausedbyanxietyanddepressiondisorders,especiallyinadolescents.AtrialstudytestedtheWMof733adolescentparticipants,randomlyassigningthemtoanactiveorplaceboemotionalworkingmemorytraining.Emotionalstimuliwasusedasthebestwaytoseeresultsbecauseofthemajorinfluenceanxietyanddepressiondisordershaveonemotionalregulation.After4weeksofbi-weeklytraining,resultsshowedimprovementsinworkingmemory,bothshort-termandlong-termemotionalfunctioning,andevenanincreaseinselfesteemamongtheactivegroup.WhileimprovementsinWMwereobservedinbothgroups,thereweremanylimitationsandfurtherresearchisstillneededtoproducetrainingthatwillcreatelongtermeffectsinthosewhosufferfrommentalhealthdisorderssuchasanxietyanddepression.[29] Althoughsomestudiespublishedhavearguedthatworkingmemorytraininghastheabilitytoimproveoverallintelligence,morerecentliteraturesuggeststhatworkingmemorytrainingdoesnottransfertoothercognitiveabilitytests.Italsosuggeststhattheconclusionsdrawninthepreviousstudiesarearesultofdesignlimitations,mixedresults,andalackoftheoreticalgrounding.[30]Thelimitationsaremostlyfoundinthelackofcontrolsinthepreviousstudies.Apaperthatevaluatedallpreviousliteratureonworkingmemorytrainingnotedthatnotasinglestudyhadconcurrentlycontrolledfor"motivation,commitment,anddifficulty"inboththeexperimentalandcontrolgroups.[31]Afewyearsafterthispaperwaspublished,arandomized,placebo-controlledstudywasconductedtotestthetransfereffectsofworkingmemorytrainingwhilecontrollingforallaspectspreviouslymentioned.[30]Thisstudyconcludedthatworkingmemorytraininghadnopositivetransfertoanyofothercognitiveabilitytestsincludingfluidintelligence,multitasking,crystallizedintelligence,andperceptualspeed. History[edit] Theconceptofworkingmemorybecamewidelyacceptedanditsimportancebetterunderstoodacrossthe1970s.Atthistime,anumberofattemptstoimproveworkingmemorywerealsoinitiated.[32]Forinstance,inonecase,acollegestudentpracticedrepeatingnumbersthatwerereadtohimaloudforanhoureachday. [33] Hedidthisthreetofivetimesaweekfor20monthsuntilhecouldrepeatasmanyas79digits.Whilehiscapacityonthistrainedtaskhadimproved,hisworkingmemory:theabilitytostoreinformation,asdescribedabovehadnot.Thiswasmostclearlydemonstratedwhen,askedtorepeatlettersinsteadofnumbers,thissamestudentwithover320hrsofpracticeatrecallingdigitscouldrecallonlysixlettersatatime:anormaltobelowaverageperformance.Theeffectofthetrainingwasnottoimprovetheworkingmemorysystembuttochangetheinformationbeingstored:thestudenthadlearnedmultiplemethodsofgroupingnumbersandrelatingthemtosimilarfiguresalreadyinhislong-termmemory.Inreality,hisworkingmemorycapacityhadnotincreased.Thisstudyandotherslikeitcontributedtotheprevailingassumptioninthescientificcommunitythatworkingmemoryisasetcharacteristicthatcannotbeimproved. ADHDcontroversy[edit] Manyclinicalstudiespublishedin1990sand2000sclaimthatworkingmemorytrainingisanefficientstrategyformitigatingeffectsofADHDandothercognitivedisorders.[34]Manystudiesalsodemonstratedthatworkingmemorytrainingenhancesepisodicmemoryandcouldleadtobetterperformanceandimprovementsinfluidintelligenceandprocessingspeedtasksintheelderly.[35][36][37] GeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyresearcherswhoreviewed17studiesonWMTconcludedthat"theresultsareinconsistent"duetothefactthatmanystudieshad"inadequatecontrols"aswellas"ineffectivemeasurementofthecognitiveabilitiesofinterest."[38] In2012,asystematicmeta-analyticreviewwasundertaken.[2]Stringentcriteriaforinclusionensuredthatallstudieswereeitherrandomizedcontrolledtrialsorquasi-experiments.Allstudieshadtohaveatreatmentandatreatedoruntreatedcontrolgroup.Bythistime,sometwenty-threestudiesmetthesecriteria,includingbothclinicalsamplesoftypicallydevelopingchildrenandadults.TheresultscloselyreplicatedtheoriginalfindingbyEriccsonetal.(1980):[33]Therewereshort-termimprovementsinpracticedskills.WhiletheresultswereconclusiveforADHDpopulation,therewasnoconvincingevidencefortransferorgeneralizationeffects(indicatingimprovedcapacity)intypicallydevelopingchildrenandhealthyadults."[2] Otherresearchershavestudiedtheeffectsoftrainingonchildrenwithattentionissues.AmongthemareNYU,[39][40]andtheUniversityofYork.[41]Inaddition,manyresearchersarenowexploringtheuseofworkingmemorytrainingforvariousnewapplications,withstudieshavingbeencompletedorlaunchedonnormalandagingadults,[42]pediatriccancersurvivors,[43][originalresearch?]andvictimsofstrokeandtraumaticbraininjury.[44][45] IntheFebruary2009editionofScience,Klingbergandcolleagues,ledbyFMcNab,claimedthatadaptivespantraininghadledtochangesindopamineD1andD2receptors.[46]Inthesamestudy,testsof"fartransfer"–whetherornottheskillsinonetestappliedtoverydifferentintelligence-relatedskills–weremade.Theresultswerenotreported.[38](seesupportingonlinematerials).Moreover,researchattheWallenbergNeuroscienceCenterinSwedenindicatesthatworkingmemorytrainingmaydecreasehippocampalneurogenesis.Whenexperimentalmedicalscientiststrainedadultmaleratsinaworkingmemorytaskfor4or14days,ratstrainedfortwoweekshadfewernewbornhippocampalneuronsthanthosethatwereonlytrainedfor4days.Thereportsuggeststhatincreasedstress,causedbyanintensetrainingofworkingmemory,canreducetheproductionofhippocampalneurons.[47] Lackofcredibleevidenceofefficacyisincreasinglyhighlightedinpopularmedia.[48][49][50] References[edit] 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^KoberSE,SchweigerD,WitteM,ReichertJL,GrieshoferP,NeuperC,WoodG(December2015)."SpecificeffectsofEEGbasedneurofeedbacktrainingonmemoryfunctionsinpost-strokevictims".JournalofNeuroengineeringandRehabilitation.12(1):107.doi:10.1186/s12984-015-0105-6.PMC 4666277.PMID 26625906. ^McNabF,VarroneA,FardeL,JucaiteA,BystritskyP,ForssbergH,KlingbergT(February2009)."ChangesincorticaldopamineD1receptorbindingassociatedwithcognitivetraining".Science.323(5915):800–802.Bibcode:2009Sci...323..800M.doi:10.1126/science.1166102.PMID 19197069.S2CID 206516408. ^MohapelP,Mundt-PetersenK,BrundinP,FrielingsdorfH(October2006)."Workingmemorytrainingdecreaseshippocampalneurogenesis".Neuroscience.142(3):609–613.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.07.033.PMID 16962715.S2CID 16748836. ^LewisJG(28January2014)."AreBrain-TrainingGamesWorthIt?".Slate. ^ColbyL(21May2014)."BrainTrainingSeenasDudforAttention-DeficitChildren".BloombergTechnology. ^CookG(5April2013)."BrainGamesareBogus".TheNewYorker.CondéNast. Furtherreading[edit] CowanN(2010)."Multipleconcurrentthoughts:Themeaninganddevelopmentalneuropsychologyofworkingmemory".DevelopmentalNeuropsychology.35(5):447–474.doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.494985.PMC 2925295.PMID 20721769. Melby-LervågM,HulmeC(February2013)."Isworkingmemorytrainingeffective?Ameta-analyticreview".DevelopmentalPsychology.49(2):270–291.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.281.7759.doi:10.1037/a0028228.PMID 22612437. MoreauD,ConwayAR(July2014)."Thecaseforanecologicalapproachtocognitivetraining".TrendsinCognitiveSciences.18(7):334–336.doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.009.PMID 24972505.S2CID 28915970. 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