ADW: Loxodonta cyclotis: INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web

Loxodonta cyclotisAfrican forest elephant. Facebook. Twitter. By Tara Connor. Geographic Range; Habitat ... AnimalDiversityWeb UniversityofMichiganMuseumofZoology UniversityofMichigan Home AboutUs AboutAnimalNames EducationalResources SpecialCollections Glossary BrowseAnimalia MoreInformation AdditionalInformation EncyclopediaofLife LoxodontacyclotisAfricanforestelephant Facebook Twitter ByTaraConnor GeographicRange Habitat PhysicalDescription Reproduction Lifespan/Longevity Behavior CommunicationandPerception FoodHabits Predation EcosystemRoles EconomicImportanceforHumans:Positive EconomicImportanceforHumans:Negative ConservationStatus OtherComments Contributors References GeographicRange AfricanforestelephantsoccurincentralandwesternAfrica.TheycanbefoundinnorthernCongo,southwesternCentralAfricanRepublic,thesoutheastcoastofGabon,southernGhana,andinCoteD'Ivoire.Manyofthesepopulationsareisolatedfromeachothercurrently.(Dudley,etal.,1992;Merz,1986a;Merz,1986b;Tangley,1997;White,etal.,1993) BiogeographicRegions ethiopian native Habitat AfricanforestelephantsaremostpopulousincentralandwesternAfrica.Areasofhighdensityarecharacterizedbylowlandtropicalrainforests,semi-evergreenandsemi-deciduoustropicalrainforests,andswamps.Elephantschangehabitatsseasonally,inhabitingswampyareasduringthedryseason,thenmovingbacktolowlandrainforestareasinthewetseason.Africanforestelephantsseekrefugeinrainforestpreservesbecausetheyarepersecutedbylocalhumanpopulations.Theyareillegalllyhuntedforivoryandkilledforcrop-raiding.(Dudley,etal.,1992;FayandAgnagna,1991;Merz,1986a;Merz,1986b;Tangley,1997;White,etal.,1993) HabitatRegions tropical terrestrial TerrestrialBiomes forest rainforest scrubforest Wetlands swamp OtherHabitatFeatures riparian Rangeelevation 100to400m 328.08to1312.34ft PhysicalDescription Africanforestelephantsaresmallerthantheircloserelatives,savannaelephants(Loxodontaafricana).Maleshoulderheightisgreaterthanfemaleshoulderheightandheightincreaseswithage.Meanshoulderheightisbetween144and155cm(range69to216cm).Hindfootprintlengthishelpfulindeterminingage,meanhindfootprintlengthis24.7andthemedianis25.8cm(range12.5to35.3cm).Boliwidth,orfeces,isalsoahelpfulfactorindeterminingbodysizeand,therefore,age.Averageboliwidthis10cm(range4to16cm).MeasurementsofwildanimalsindicatethatAfricanforestelephantsstopgrowingatabout10to12yearsofage,youngerthantheirsavannahelephantrelatives.Furthermore,growthratesarelowerthansavannahelephants.Africanforestelephantsalsohavestraighterandthinnertusksthathangmoreverticallytoassistinpassagethroughdenseforests.Theyhaveroundedears,unlikesavannaelephantsthathaveoverhangingflapsalongtheupperedgeoftheear.Therearealsodifferencesinskullmorphologybetweenthetwospecies:Africanforestelephantshavelesspneumatization,theformationofaircellsorcavitiesintissue,intheirskullsthansavannaelephants.Africanforestelephantshave4toesontheirfrontfeetand3onthehindfeet,Africansavannaelephantshave5toesontheirfrontfeetand4onthehindfeet,althoughhybridsoccur.(InternationalElephantFoundation,2008;Kingdon,1979;MorganandLee,2003;Roca,etal.,2001) Elephantshavethelargestbrainofanylandanimal.Thebrainislocatedinthebackoftheskullawayfromtheforehead.Theirforeheadholdsasponge-likebonewhichcompensatesfortheheavyweightofthetrunk.Thetrunkismoresensitivethanhumanfingersandisusedtosignal,trumpet,eat,bathe,dust,smell,andindefense.Trunksarealsousedinrespiration,especiallywhenelephantsswim.Theycanholdtheirtrunksabovethewaterandbreathethroughthem. ThelargeearsofAfricanforestelephantshelpthemregulatetemperaturebecausetheyhavefewsweatglands.Theycoolthemselvesbymakingafanningmotionwiththeirearsandpumpbloodintotheearstohelpdissipatebodyheat.Elephantshavesensitiveskinandcanbepronetosunburn,especiallywhenyoung.Theirwrinkledskinalsohelpsinkeepingthemcoolbecausewateristrappedinthecracksandcrevices,whichthenevaporates.Elephantscanlose75%oftheirbodyheatusingthismethodofcooling. Thelargefeetandthickfatpadsonthefeetactasshockabsorberstohelpevenlydistributethepressureoftheirlargebodymass.Theirfeetaresensitiveandcanpickupvibrationsthroughtheground,includingthunderandelephantcallsfromupto10milesaway.(Kingdon,1979;MorganandLee,2003;Roca,etal.,2001) OtherPhysicalFeatures endothermic homoiothermic bilateralsymmetry SexualDimorphism malelarger sexesshapeddifferently ornamentation Rangemass 2700to6000kg 5947.14to13215.86lb Rangelength 1.6to2.86m 5.25to9.38ft Reproduction Africanforestelephantsarepolygynous.Malescompeteforaccesstoestrusfemalesandolder,larger,moredominantmalesgenerallymatewithmorefemales.Malesexperience"musth,"ahormonalstatemarkedbyincreasedaggression.Duringthisperiod,themalesecretesafluidfromthetemporalglandbetweentheeyeandear.Musthbeginsat15and25yearsold.Thereisapositivecorrelationbetweenageandperiodofmusthinmaleelephants.Youngermalesusuallyexperiencemusthforashorterperiodoftimewhileoldermalesusuallyexperienceitforalongerperiodoftime.Thereareseveralbehaviorsthatmaleelephantsdowhileinmusth.Theyhaveamoreerectwalk-theirheadheldhighandtheirtuskstuckedinward.Theymayalsorubthesideoftheirheadsontreesorbushesinordertospreadtheirmusthscent.Theymaywaveorflaptheirearswhichwouldblowthemusthsmelltowardsotherelephants.Atthesametimetheearwaveisperformed,amusthrumblemaybetransitted.Amusthrumbleisadistinctsetoflowfrequencycallstheymaybeaslowas14Hz.Youngermalesperformthesecallslessfrequentlythanoldermalesandfemalesusuallyrespondwiththeirowncalls.Thelastbehaviorassociatedwithmusthisurination.Malesdribbleurineslowlyandallowittosprayontotheinsidesoftheirhindlegs.Allofthesebehaviorsservetoadvertisetheirmusthstatetoreceptivefemalesandcompetingmales. Femalesgothroughfourstagesofestrousbehavior.Thefirststageiswariness,thenextstageistheestrouswalk,wherethefemaleleaveshergroup,walkingawaywithherheadheldhighandturnedtothesidewatchingthemalefollowherfrombehind.Thethirdstageisthechase.Thefourthandfinalstageofestrousbehaviorisconsortship.Amaleandfemaleelephantinteractphysicallyduringthisstage.Themalewardsoffanyothermalesasthefemalegetsclosertoherpartner.(InternationalElephantFoundation,2008;Sukumar,2003) MatingSystem polygynous cooperativebreeder BecauseAfricanforestelephantsarearecentlyrecognizedspecies,thereislittlespecificinformationavailableontheirreproduction.Informationreportedhereisforthepreviouslyrecognizedinclusivespecies-Africanelephants.Youngermalesgointomusthduringthedryseason,butoldermalesgointomusthduringthewetseason,whenmorefemalesgointoestrous.Estrouslastsforabout2daysandoccursapproximatelyevery15weeks.Gestationlasts20to22months,afterwhichasingleyoungisborn,althoughtwinsoccurrarely.Femalesnursetheiryoungforupto6.5years,althoughyoungbegintoincludevegetationintheirdietintheirfirstyearoflife.Maleyoungmaynursemorethanfemaleyoungandallosucklingoccasionallyoccurs-whereotherfemalemembersofthegroupnurseanotherfemale'syoung. Ageatsexualmaturityvarieswithclimate,habitat,anddiet.Wildfemaleelephantsusuallyreachsexualmaturitybetween11and14yearsold(range9to22years).Malesalsoreachsexualmaturityat11to14years,althoughmalestypicallydonotsuccessfullyreproduceuntiltheyareolder,moreexperienced,andlarger.(InternationalElephantFoundation,2008;Sukumar,2003) KeyReproductiveFeatures iteroparous year-roundbreeding gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious(sexesseparate) sexual viviparous Breedinginterval Femalesbreedevery4to9years. Breedingseason Matingmayoccurthroughouttheyear,butmaybemoreconcentratedinthewetseason. Rangenumberofoffspring 1to2 Averagenumberofoffspring 1 Rangegestationperiod 22to24months Rangeweaningage 36to78months Averagetimetoindependence 13years Rangeageatsexualorreproductivematurity(female) 11to14years Rangeageatsexualorreproductivematurity(male) 8to15years FemalesinAfricanforestelephantgroupsallcontributetothecareofyoung.Mothersnurseandcarefortheiryoungforextendedperiodsoftime,frombirthtoabout8yearsold.Veryyoungcalvesstaywithinabout5metersoftheirmotheratalltimes.Whenacalfisborn,itcanstandonitsownshortlyafterbirth.Calvesarenursedexclusivelyfor3monthsandweanedat78monthsold.Calvesspendmanyyearslearningtonavigatetheircomplexenvironmentsandfindfood.(InternationalElephantFoundation,2008;Sukumar,2003) ParentalInvestment precocial pre-fertilization provisioning protecting female pre-hatching/birth provisioning female protecting female pre-weaning/fledging provisioning female protecting female pre-independence provisioning female protecting female post-independenceassociationwithparents extendedperiodofjuvenilelearning Lifespan/Longevity TherearenoreportsoflifespaninLoxodontacyclotis.Datafromthepreviouslyrecognizedinclusivespecies,Africanelephants(Loxodontaafricana)suggestslifespansof65to70yearsoldinthewild.Aliving53yearoldelephantistheoldestrecordedageforcaptiveAfricanelephants,butexpectedlifespanincaptivityiscloserto33.(deMagalhaes,etal.,2005;WieseandWillis,2004) RangelifespanStatus:wild 70(high)years RangelifespanStatus:captivity 54(high)years TypicallifespanStatus:wild 65(high)years TypicallifespanStatus:captivity 33(high)years Behavior Africanforestelephantstravelinsmallergroupsthanotherelephantspecies.Atypicalgroupsizeconsistsof2to8individuals.Theaveragefamilyunitis3to5individuals,usuallymadeupoffemalerelatives.Mostfamilygroupsareamotherandseveralofheroffspring,orseveralfemalesandtheiroffspring.Femaleoffspringarephilopatric,maleoffspringdisperseatmaturity.UnlikeAfricansavannaelephants(Loxodontaafricana),Africanforestelephants(Loxodontacyclotis)donotusuallyinteractwithotherfamilygroups.MaleAfricanforestelephantstendtobesolitaryandonlyassociatewithotherelephantsduringthematingseason.Maleshaveadominancehierarchybasedonsize.(MorganandLee,2003;Sukumar,2003;Tangley,1997) KeyBehaviors terricolous diurnal nocturnal motile nomadic social dominancehierarchies Rangeterritorysize 100to5,500km^2 HomeRange HomerangesizeofAfricanforestelephantsisdifficulttodetermineduetotheirdenseforesthabitat.Homerangesizewillvarywithregionalcharacteristics,suchasproximitytowaterandqualityoffoodresources.(Sukumar,2003) CommunicationandPerception Africanforestelephants,alongwithotherelephants,communicateamongwidelydispersedsocialgroupsthroughlow-frequencysounds(5Hz).BecauseLoxodontacyclotisisnewlyrecognized,thereisnoliteratureoncommunicationandperceptioninthisspecies.However,itwaspreviouslyrecognizedthatAfricanelephantsarecapableofrecognizingacallfromafamilymemberuptoadistanceof2.5km,butcanbetterrecognizeitat1.0to1.5km.Giventhedifferenceinhabitatstructure(savannahvs.forest),itmaybeexpectedthatdetectiondistancesareshorterinAfricanforestelephants.Hearingandsmellarethetwomostimportantsensesforthesemammals.Theycanhearvibrationsthroughthegroundandcanusetheirsenseofsmelltodetectfoodsources.Likeotherelephants,though,Africanelephantshavegoodeyesightandextremelysensitivetactileperceptionthroughtheirtrunksandskin.Trunksareusedextensivelytomanipulateobjectsandforinformationgathering.Elephantstouchtheirtrunktoanobject,theninsertthetrunkintothemouth,wherethechemicalcuesarepickedupintheroofofthemouth.(Dudley,etal.,1992;Kingdon,1979;McComb,etal.,2003;MorganandLee,2003;Roca,etal.,2001;Tangley,1997) CommunicationChannels visual tactile acoustic chemical OtherCommunicationModes pheromones vibrations PerceptionChannels visual tactile acoustic vibrations chemical FoodHabits Africanforestelephantsareherbivorous,theirdietiscomposedmainlyoffruit,leaves,bark,andtwigsofrainforesttrees.Theyconsumeawidevarietyoffruit,includingAntidesmavogelianum,Omphalocarpumspecies,Dubosciamacrocarpa,Swartziafistuloides,andKlainedoxagabonensis.TreespecieseatenincludelegumessuchasPiptadeniastrumafricanum,Petersianthusmacrocarpus,andPentaclethraeetveldeana.Dietsvaryregionallywithavailabletreesandfruits.Africanforestelephantssupplementtheirherbivorousdietwithmineralsthattheygetbyeatingsoil.(Eggert,etal.,2003;Tangley,1997;White,etal.,1993) PrimaryDiet herbivore folivore frugivore lignivore PlantFoods leaves wood,bark,orstems seeds,grains,andnuts fruit Predation HumansarethegreatestthreatstoAfricanforestelephants.Theyhavebeenextensivelyhuntedfortheirivory,whichmaybewhymanyAfricanforestelephantstravelandfeedatnight.Theyarealsopersecutedbyfarmersforthedamagetheydotocrops.Cropdestructionismoreoftentheresultofforagingbyrats(Nesomyidae),porcupines(Hystricidae),monkeys(Cercopithecus),andriverhogs(Potamochoerusporcus),butmanyanycropdestructiononelephants.VeryyoungAfricanforestelephantsthatsomehowareseparatedfromtheirfamilygrouporareillmaybepreyedonbylargecarnivores,suchaslions(Pantheraleo)orhyenas(Hyaenidae),althoughthesepredatorsarerareinAfricanforestelephanthabitats.(Dudley,etal.,1992;Tangley,1997;Weber,etal.,2001) KnownPredators humans(Homosapiens) EcosystemRoles Africanforestelephantsareimportantdispersersofseedsthroughtheirconsumptionoffruit.Forestdates(Balaniteswilsoniana)areconsideredelephantdependentbecausetheseedgerminatesmoresuccessfullyafterpassingthroughanelephant.ThedeclineofelephantpopulationsinWestAfricanrainforestsinUpperGuineaiscorrelatedwithforestdatepopulationdeclines.Africanforestelephantsarealsoresponsibleforcreatingandmaintaininglargeclearingsinthemiddleofrainforestsinareaswheretheyextractmineralsaltsfromthesoilorteardownvegetationastheyeatandtravel.Theseforestopeningsstronglyaffectforesttreeregenerationandincreaseforesttreediversity,affectingmanyotherorganismsinthatarea.Thepathsandholesinthegroundthattheymakeastheytravelareusedbyothersmalleranimalsforshelterorbecomeasourceofdrinkingwater.Becauseoftheirlargeimpactonforestcomposition,Africanforestelephantsmightbeconsideredakeystonespecies. BecauseAfricanforestelephantswerelong-consideredasubspeciesoftheinclusiveAfricanelephantspecies,Loxodontaafricana,parasitesforbothspecieshavenotbeensortedout.However,parasitesrecognizedtheinclusivespeciesinclude:2speciesoftrematodes,32speciesofnematodes,21speciesofticks,1lousespecies,botflies,protozoans(Babesia),andblood-suckingfliesinthefamilyAnthomyidae.(Eggert,etal.,2003;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Sukumar,2003) EcosystemImpact dispersesseeds createshabitat keystonespecies MutualistSpecies forestdates(Balaniteswilsoniana) Commensal/ParasiticSpecies trematodes(Trematoda) nematodes(Nematoda) ticks(Acari) lice(Anoplura) botflies(Cuterebra) protozoans(Babesia) blood-suckingflies(Anthomyidae) EconomicImportanceforHumans:Positive Africanforestelephantshaveaffectedhumanpopulationsinapositivewaybecausetheyprovidehumanswithivory,hide,andmeat.Differentcultureshavehistoricallyusedelephantivoryfordifferentpurposesanditisviewedasasymbolofwealthandluxury.Ivoryhasbeenusedforknifehandles,combs,toys,pianokeys,billiardballs,furniture,andartwork.Portugueseinthelatefifteenthcenturyexported100to120tonsofivoryaverageeveryyearfromwesternAfrica.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,theCongoexported352tonsofivoryperyear.Elephantivoryisnolongerlegallytradedandpoachingforivoryisamajorthreattoelephantpopulations.Africanforestelephantsareimportantmembersofnativeecosystems,impactingforestregenerationandcomposition.(Sukumar,2003) PositiveImpacts food bodypartsaresourceofvaluablematerial EconomicImportanceforHumans:Negative Africanelephantshavebeenknowntocausedamagetocrops.Theytypicallyareattractedtosugarcane(Saccharumofficianarum)andcerealslikecorn(Zeamays),sorghum(Sorghumvulgare),andwheat(Triticumvulgare).Theyarealsoattractedtomanydifferenttypesofmilletsuchasfingermillet(Eleusinecoracana),littlemillet(Panicummiliare),andbulrushmillet(Pennisetumtyphoides).Elephantsareattractedtodifferentfruitsandvegetablessuchasmango,banana,orange,melon,jackfruit,potato,tomato,carrot,spinach,andpumpkin.Muchofthecropdamageiscausedbyelephantstramplingovercropsandisonlysometimesduetotheeatingofcrops.OthercropsoftenaffectedbyAfricanforestelephantsincludeoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis),oranges(Citrussinensis),andcacao(Theobromacacao). Elephantsoccasionallykillpeople.Theseareusuallychanceencounterswherepeopleaccidentallyorintentionallybecometooclosetoanelephant,causingittofeelthreatened.(Sukumar,2003) NegativeImpacts injureshumans croppest ConservationStatus TheIUCNRedListconsidersAfricanforestelephantsasubspecesofAfricanelephants,whichtheyconsidernearthreatened.CITESlistsAfricanelephantsunderappendicesIandII.AppendixIstatesthattheanimalisthreatenedtoextinctionandtradeoftheanimalisonlyallowedundercertaincircumstances.AppendixIIstatesthattheanimalisnotnecessarilythreatenedtoextinction,buttradeoftheanimaliscloselymonitored. IUCNRedList Nospecialstatus Moreinformation IUCNRedList Nospecialstatus Moreinformation USFederalList Threatened CITES AppendixI AppendixII OtherComments Until2001,Africanforestelephantswereconsideredasmaller,forest-dwellingsubspeciesoftheinclusiveAfricanelephantspecies(Loxodontaafricana).However,cleargeneticdifferencessuggestthatAfricanforestelephantsarequitedistinctanddeservedspeciesstatus.Morphologicalandbehavioraldifferencesrecognizedatthesubspecieslevelalsosupportthisdistinction.(Roca,etal.,2001;Vogel,2001) Contributors TanyaDewey(editor),AnimalDiversityWeb. TaraConnor(author),RadfordUniversity,KarenPowers(editor,instructor),RadfordUniversity. Glossary Ethiopian livinginsub-SaharanAfrica(southof30degreesnorth)andMadagascar. acoustic usessoundtocommunicate bilateralsymmetry havingbodysymmetrysuchthattheanimalcanbedividedinoneplaneintotwomirror-imagehalves.Animalswithbilateralsymmetryhavedorsalandventralsides,aswellasanteriorandposteriorends.SynapomorphyoftheBilateria. chemical usessmellsorotherchemicalstocommunicate cooperativebreeder helpersprovideassistanceinraisingyoungthatarenottheirown diurnal activeduringtheday,2.lastingforoneday. dominancehierarchies rankingsystemorpeckingorderamongmembersofalong-termsocialgroup,wheredominancestatusaffectsaccesstoresourcesormates endothermic animalsthatusemetabolicallygeneratedheattoregulatebodytemperatureindependentlyofambienttemperature.EndothermyisasynapomorphyoftheMammalia,althoughitmayhavearisenina(nowextinct)synapsidancestor;thefossilrecorddoesnotdistinguishthesepossibilities.Convergentinbirds. folivore ananimalthatmainlyeatsleaves. food Asubstancethatprovidesbothnutrientsandenergytoalivingthing. forest forestbiomesaredominatedbytrees,otherwiseforestbiomescanvarywidelyinamountofprecipitationandseasonality. frugivore ananimalthatmainlyeatsfruit herbivore Ananimalthateatsmainlyplantsorpartsofplants. iteroparous offspringareproducedinmorethanonegroup(litters,clutches,etc.)andacrossmultipleseasons(orotherperiodshospitabletoreproduction).Iteroparousanimalsmust,bydefinition,surviveovermultipleseasons(orperiodicconditionchanges). keystonespecies aspecieswhosepresenceorabsencestronglyaffectspopulationsofotherspeciesinthatareasuchthattheextirpationofthekeystonespeciesinanareawillresultintheultimateextirpationofmanymorespeciesinthatarea(Example:seaotter). motile havingthecapacitytomovefromoneplacetoanother. nativerange theareainwhichtheanimalisnaturallyfound,theregioninwhichitisendemic. nocturnal activeduringthenight nomadic generallywandersfromplacetoplace,usuallywithinawell-definedrange. pheromones chemicalsreleasedintoairorwaterthataredetectedbyandrespondedtobyotheranimalsofthesamespecies polygynous havingmorethanonefemaleasamateatonetime rainforest rainforests,bothtemperateandtropical,aredominatedbytreesoftenformingaclosedcanopywithlittlelightreachingtheground.Epiphytesandclimbingplantsarealsoabundant.Precipitationistypicallynotlimiting,butmaybesomewhatseasonal. riparian Referringtosomethinglivingorlocatedadjacenttoawaterbody(usually,butnotalways,ariverorstream). scrubforest scrubforestsdevelopinareasthatexperiencedryseasons. sexual reproductionthatincludescombiningthegeneticcontributionoftwoindividuals,amaleandafemale sexualornamentation oneofthesexes(usuallymales)hasspecialphysicalstructuresusedincourtingtheothersexorfightingthesamesex.Forexample:antlers,elongatedtails,specialspurs. social associateswithothersofitsspecies;formssocialgroups. swamp awetlandareathatmaybepermanentlyorintermittentlycoveredinwater,oftendominatedbywoodyvegetation. tactile usestouchtocommunicate terrestrial Livingontheground. threatened Thetermisusedinthe1994IUCNRedListofThreatenedAnimalstorefercollectivelytospeciescategorizedasEndangered(E),Vulnerable(V),Rare(R),Indeterminate(I),orInsufficientlyKnown(K)andinthe1996IUCNRedListofThreatenedAnimalstorefercollectivelytospeciescategorizedasCriticallyEndangered(CR),Endangered(EN),orVulnerable(VU). tropical theregionoftheearththatsurroundstheequator,from23.5degreesnorthto23.5degreessouth. vibrations movementsofahardsurfacethatareproducedbyanimalsassignalstoothers visual usessighttocommunicate viviparous reproductioninwhichfertilizationanddevelopmenttakeplacewithinthefemalebodyandthedevelopingembryoderivesnourishmentfromthefemale. year-roundbreeding breedingtakesplacethroughouttheyear youngprecocial youngarerelativelywell-developedwhenborn References Berger,L.2001."Opinion:HowDoYouMissaWholeElephantSpecies?" (On-line).NationalGeographic. Accessed September23,2008 athttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/12/1217_leeelephant.html. Douglas-Hamilton,O.2008."Africa'sElephants:CanTheySurvive?" (On-line).NationalGeographic. Accessed September23,2008 athttp://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/africa-elephant/douglas-hamilton-text/12. Dudley,J.,A.Mensah-Ntiamoah,D.Kpelle.1992.Forestelephantsinarainforestfragment:preliminaryfindingsfromawildlifeconservationprojectinsouthernGhana.AfricanJournalofEcology,30/20:116-126. Eggert,L.,J.Eggert,D.Woodruff.2003.Estimatingpopulationsizesforelusiveanimals:theforestelephantsofKakumNationalPark,Ghana.MolecularEcology,12:1389-1402. Fay,M.,M.Agnagna.1991.Apopulationsurveyofforestelephants(Loxodontaafricanacyclotis)innorthernCongo.AfricanJournalofEcology,29/3:177-187. InternationalElephantFoundation,2008."Loxodonta" (On-line).InternationalElephantFoundation. Accessed January02,2009 athttp://www.elephantconservation.org/loxodonta.php. 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Morgan,B.,P.Lee.2003.Forestelephant(Loxodontaafricanacyclotis)statureintheReservedeFauneduPetitLoango,Gabon.JournalofZoology,259:337-344. Roca,A.,N.Georgiadis,J.Pecon-Slattery,S.O'Brien.2001.GeneticEvidenceforTwoSpeciesofElephantinAfrica.Science,293:1473-1477. Sukumar,R.2003.TheLivingElephants:EvolutionaryEcology,Behavior,andConservation.NewYork,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. Tangley,L.1997.InSearchofAfrica'sForgottenForestElephant.Science,275:1417-1419. Vogel,G.2001.AfricanElephantSpeciesSplitsinTwo.Science,293:1414. Walsh,P.,L.White.1999.WhatItWillTaketoMonitorForestElephantPopulations.ConservationBiology,13:1194-1202. Weber,W.,L.White,A.Vedder.2001.AfricanRainForestEcology&Conservation.Pp.207-213inATurkalo,JFay,eds.ForestElephantBehaviorandEcology.NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress. Accessed October09,2008 athttp://books.google.com/books?id=iNwfN5ASigUC&pg=PA207&dq=african+forest+elephant&sig=ACfU3U2WknR4HRncZd6lRBLtwCRxOrCG-A#PPT1,M1. White,L.,C.Tutin,M.Fernandez.1993.Groupcompositionanddietofforestelephants,LoxodontaafricanacyclotisMatschie1900,intheLopeReserve,Gabon.AfricanJournalofEcology,31:181-199. Wiese,R.,K.Willis.2004.Calculationoflongevityandlifeexpectancyincaptiveelephants.ZooBiology,23/4:365-373. Accessed December11,2008 athttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/109580436/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0. deMagalhaes,J.,J.Costa,O.Toussaint.2005."HAGR:theHumanAgeingGenomicResources." (On-line).AnAgeentryforLoxodontaafricana. Accessed December11,2008 athttp://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Loxodonta_africana. ADWPocketGuidesontheiOSAppStore! TheAnimalDiversityWebteamisexcitedtoannounceADWPocketGuides! Readmore... Search Entersearchtext Search Searchinfeature TaxonInformation ContributorGalleries Topics Classification ExploreData@Quaardvark SearchGuide NavigationLinks Information Classification Classification Kingdom Animalia animals Animalia:information(1) Animalia:pictures(22861) Animalia:specimens(7109) Animalia:sounds(722) Animalia:maps(42) Phylum Chordata chordates Chordata:information(1) Chordata:pictures(15213) Chordata:specimens(6829) Chordata:sounds(709) Subphylum Vertebrata vertebrates Vertebrata:information(1) Vertebrata:pictures(15168) Vertebrata:specimens(6827) Vertebrata:sounds(709) Class Mammalia mammals Mammalia:information(1) Mammalia:pictures(4389) Mammalia:specimens(6622) Mammalia:sounds(13) Order Proboscidea elephants Proboscidea:information(1) Proboscidea:pictures(53) Proboscidea:specimens(6) Family Elephantidae elephants Elephantidae:pictures(53) Elephantidae:specimens(6) Genus Loxodonta Africanelephants Loxodonta:pictures(29) Loxodonta:specimens(1) Species Loxodontacyclotis Africanforestelephant Loxodontacyclotis:information(1) Tocitethispage: Connor,T.2009."Loxodontacyclotis"(On-line),AnimalDiversityWeb.AccessedJuly29,2022athttps://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Loxodonta_cyclotis/ Disclaimer: TheAnimalDiversityWebisaneducationalresourcewrittenlargelybyandforcollegestudents.ADWdoesn'tcoverallspeciesintheworld,nordoesitincludeallthelatestscientificinformationaboutorganismswedescribe.Thoughweeditouraccountsforaccuracy,wecannotguaranteeallinformationinthoseaccounts.WhileADWstaffandcontributorsprovidereferencestobooksandwebsitesthatwebelievearereputable,wecannotnecessarilyendorsethecontentsofreferencesbeyondourcontrol. 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