ADW: Loxodonta africana - Animal Diversity Web

Loxodonta africanaAfrican bush elephant ... The range of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) is patchily distributed across central and southern Africa ... AnimalDiversityWeb UniversityofMichiganMuseumofZoology UniversityofMichigan Home AboutUs AboutAnimalNames EducationalResources SpecialCollections Glossary BrowseAnimalia MoreInformation AdditionalInformation EncyclopediaofLife LoxodontaafricanaAfricanbushelephant Facebook Twitter ByMeghanHoward GeographicRange Habitat PhysicalDescription Reproduction Lifespan/Longevity Behavior CommunicationandPerception FoodHabits Predation EcosystemRoles EconomicImportanceforHumans:Positive EconomicImportanceforHumans:Negative ConservationStatus Contributors References GeographicRange TherangeofAfricanelephants(Loxodontaafricana)ispatchilydistributedacrosscentralandsouthernAfricaintheEthiopianRegion.RemnantpopulationsexistasfarnorthwestasGuinea-BissauandasfarnortheastasEthiopia.DisjunctpopulationsexistsouthwardintonorthernSouthAfrica,andincludecontiguouspopulationsinGabon,Tanzania,Botswana,andZambia.OncepresentinBurundi,Gambia,andMauritania,they'venowbeenextirpatedfromthosecountries.TheseelephantswereextirpatedfromSwaziland,aswell,buthavebeenre-introducedhereinrecentyears.(Blanc,2008;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Thomas,etal.,2008) BiogeographicRegions ethiopian native Habitat AfricanelephantsarefoundinmanyhabitatsofAfricasuchassavannas,rainforests,woodlands,scrubforests,occasionallydeserts,andbeaches.However,duetopoachingthreatsprotectedsanctuariesaretheirmainhabitats.Withinthesesanctuaries,theseelephantswillinhabitareasthathavesourcesofwaterandabundantvegetationforforaging.Acrossthesehabitats,theelevationlevelrangesfromsealevel(0meters)to4000meters.(Duffy,etal.,2011;Harris,etal.,2008;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Mashintonio,etal.,2014) HabitatRegions tropical terrestrial TerrestrialBiomes desertordune savannaorgrassland rainforest scrubforest Rangeelevation 0to4000m 0.00to13123.36ft PhysicalDescription Currently,Africanelephantsarethelargestterrestrialorganism.Femaleelephantscanrangefrom2,000to3,500kginmassandstand2.2to2.6matshoulderheight.Maleelephantsarelarger,rangingfrom4,500to6,100kginmassandstanding3.2to4matshoulderheight.Distinguishingcharacteristicsbetweenthesexesincludeheadshape,widthofforehead,saddle-backvsstraightback,andtusksize.Malesarebroaderwithacurvybuild.Bothsexeshavetwothick,ivorytuskswhicharecurvedandcanreachupto350cminlength.Africanelephantshavemusculartrunksthatareabletograbobjectsandcanbeusedforbreathingpurposes.Theycangrabobjectsduetotheuniqueshapeattheendofthetrunk.Theirsizableearsaretriangularandcanhelpkeepthemcoolinthehot,summermonths. Africanelephantshavecreased,grayskincoveredwithpapillae.Thethick(upto30mm),immobileskincoversthemajorityofthebody,whilebumpyskincoversareasthatrequirealotofmovement.Smoothskincanbefoundondelicateareasofthebody.Hairthatvariesincolor,length,andthicknesscanbefoundalongthebody.Hairthatgrowsalongthebackandtailisflatteneddarkhairthatcangrowto0.80minlength.Hairaroundtheeyesislonginordertopreventforeignobjectsfromenteringtheeyes.Calveshavedifferenthaircoloringandtexture.Theirhairissofterwithalightertonesuchasaredorbrown. ThedentalformulaforAfricanelephantsisi1/0,c0/0,p3/3,m3/3.Atbirth,calvesdonothavetusksbutinsteadhavetemporarypremaxillaryincisors.Theseincisorsarereplacedataboutayearofagewithincisorsthatwillultimatelyformthetusks.AdultAfricanelephantshavelophodontdentition,with6molarsthatgrowandmoveforward,likeonaconveyorbelt.Theyareworndown,lost,andreplacedthroughouttheirlives.Oncethesixthsetofmolarsisworndown,therearenoadditionalteethtoreplacethemandtheelephantisnotabletoprocessforage.(LaursenandBekoff,1978;Nowak,1999) OtherPhysicalFeatures endothermic homoiothermic bilateralsymmetry SexualDimorphism malelarger ornamentation Rangemass 2000to6100kg 4405.29to13436.12lb Rangelength 2.2to4m 7.22to13.12ft Reproduction Theestrusstateishowbullsknowifcowsarereadytomate.Thisisdonebyascentinfemaleurineandgenitalarea.Duringthecourtshipprocess,bullsapproachfemalesandattemptstousetheirtrunktostrokeher.Bullswillputupafightinordertomate,bychasingthefemalesiftheyretreat.Whenfemalesstopretreating,theywilljointhebullsinstrokingeachotherwiththeirtrunks.Thecourtshipcontinuesbyfemalessurrenderingtheirhindquarterstothemales.Bullsthenmountthefemalestobeginmating.Themaleswillthrustrepeatedlyintothefemalesforupto2mins.Whilefemalesareinanestrusstate,theymaymatewithseveraldifferentbulls,andareconsideredpolygynandrous.Theyarecooperativebreeders,inwhichfemaleshavehelpraisingyoungbyothermembersofthefamilyor"clan."(LaursenandBekoff,1978;Poole,etal.,2007) MatingSystem polygynandrous(promiscuous) cooperativebreeder Africanelephantsareviviparousanimals,meaningthattheybirththeiryounglive.Theybreedyear-roundwithnoseasonaldifferences.Thenumberofoffspringisusuallylimitedtooneforeachbirthingperiodbutinrarecases,twinsmaybeborn.Theybreedonceevery3-9years,andwillgivebirthtoanaverageoffourcalvesintheirlifetime.Thegestationperiodisabout22monthsbutisstronglyinfluencedbyenvironmentalfactors.Thegestationperiodmaybeshorteriftheenvironmentalfactorsarefavorablefornewbornssurvival.NewbornAfricanelephantswillweighbetween90-120kg,with100kgbeingtheaveragebirthweight.Offspringarecompletelydependentontheirmother'smilkuntiltheyareweanedatfourmonths,butcontinuetooccasionallydrinktheirmother'smilkforuptothreeyears.YoungAfricanelephantswillgaintheirfullindependencearoundeightyearsofage.Sexualmaturityoccursatdifferentagesformalesandfemales.Maleswillreachsexualmaturityaround20yearsofage,whilefemaleswillreachsexualmaturityaround11yearsofage.(Hildebrandt,etal.,2006;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Poole,etal.,2007) KeyReproductiveFeatures iteroparous year-roundbreeding gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious(sexesseparate) sexual fertilization viviparous Breedinginterval Africanelephantsbreedonceevery3-9years Breedingseason Africanelephantsbreedthroughouttheyear Rangenumberofoffspring 1to2 Averagenumberofoffspring 1 Averagenumberofoffspring 1 AnAge Averagegestationperiod 22months Averagegestationperiod 670days AnAge Averageweaningage 4months Averagetimetoindependence 8years Averageageatsexualorreproductivematurity(female) 11years Averageageatsexualorreproductivematurity(female)Sex:female 4018days AnAge Averageageatsexualorreproductivematurity(male) 20years Averageageatsexualorreproductivematurity(male)Sex:male 3650days AnAge InAfricanelephantherds,primarilythemotherandotherfemalesassistintakingcareoftheyoung.Whenfemaleelephantsgivebirth,theywillmoveawayfromtheherdinordertoallowspacefortheoffspring.Whentheyreturn,allmembersoftheherdwillinspectthenewelephantthoroughly.Untilyoungelephantsarearound4yearsofage,theywillcloselyfollowtheirmother.Duringthistime,motherswillfeedtheiryoungthroughbreastmilkandhelpthemmovearoundobstacles.Untilyoungoffspringareindependent,around8yearsofage,theywilldependontherestoftheherdtoteachthemhowtousetheirtrunks,forageforfood,andmovearoundtoughobstacles.Maternalpositiononlyaffectstheyoungifthemotheristheleaderoftheherd,inwhichcase,theyoungwillbethenextleaderoftheherd.(LaursenandBekoff,1978;MillerandAndrews,2013) ParentalInvestment femaleparentalcare pre-hatching/birth provisioning female pre-weaning/fledging provisioning female protecting female pre-independence provisioning female protecting female post-independenceassociationwithparents extendedperiodofjuvenilelearning maternalpositioninthedominancehierarchyaffectsstatusofyoung Lifespan/Longevity Africanelephantsreportedlyhavebeenknowntoliveuptoamaximumof65yearsincaptivity.However,unpublishedreportshavestatedthatAfricanelephantsmayliveupto80yearsincaptivity.Inthewild,Africanelephantsliveforanaverageof60-70years.(CareyandJudge,2000;Nowak,1999;Weigl,2005;WieseandWillis,2004) RangelifespanStatus:captivity 65(high)years AveragelifespanStatus:wild 60-70years AveragelifespanStatus:wild 60.0years MaxPlanckInstituteforDemographicResearch AveragelifespanStatus:captivity 80.0years MaxPlanckInstituteforDemographicResearch AveragelifespanStatus:wild 70.0years MaxPlanckInstituteforDemographicResearch Behavior Africanelephantsgenerallyareslowmovingcreatures.Theirregularpaceis6km/hourbut,theycanreachspeedsofupto24km/hourwhenrunning.Howmuchtheytraveleachdaydependsontheamountofresourcesincloseproximitythattheyrequire;theaveragewalkingdistanceforAfricanelephantsisaround10kmaday.BeforeAfricanelephantpopulationswereconstrictedtolargereservationsforprotection,theymigratedhundredsofkilometersseasonally,fromhightolowaltitudesandviceversa. Africanelephantsareactiveanimalsforthemajorityoftimeina24-hourperiod,duetotheamountoffoodtheymustconsumeeachday.Theyaredormantintheearlymorninghourswithanadditionalsleepmiddayforatotalof4hoursofsleepeveryday.Duringthistimetheyscavengeforfoodandgroomthemselves.GroomingconsistofAfricanelephantsusingtheirtrunkstocoverthemselveswithmudorwater,andtheprocesshelpsthemmaintainhydration. FemaleAfricanelephantsaresocialanimalsthatliveinherdsof6to70members.Theseherdshaveamatriarchalorder,andconsistoffemales(cows)andtheiryoung.Thealphaelephantintheseherdstendstobethebiggestandmostdominant.MaleAfricanelephants(bulls)tendtoonlylivewithinaherdiftheyarenotoldenoughtogooutontheirownorformatingpurposes.Bullswilllivealifeinsolitaryorwithafewotherbulls.(Greco,etal.,2016;LaursenandBekoff,1978;LeeandMoss,2012;Miller,etal.,2016;Thouless,1996) KeyBehaviors terricolous diurnal nocturnal motile nomadic social colonial dominancehierarchies HomeRange IfenoughessentialresourcesarepresentAfricanelephantswillmoveaslittleas1.5Kmaday.Whenresourcesarescarce,Africanelephantsmaytravelasmuchas40kmaday.Thouless(1996)reportedthatAfricanelephants'homerangecanvaryfrom102to5527kmwithinaperiodof25months.(Miller,etal.,2016) CommunicationandPerception Africanelephantscommunicateacousticallywithothersoftheirspecies.Manyoftheircallsarelowfrequencycallsofca.20Hz.Theycanmakeavarietyofcallsincludingrumble,trumpet,snort,roar,bark,andgrunt.Soltis(2010)reports3othercallsmadebytheseelephants.Theyinclude"rev,croak,andchuff."Atrumpet,roar,orgrowlcouldshowsignsofaggression.A"softchirp"showssubmissionorintimidation.Infantelephantswillgurgleduringplayandsquealwhenfrightened.TheAfricanelephantscanhearoneofthesecallsfromover2kmaway.Theywillmakethesecallstowarnorgatherothersintheirherdortosignaltheyarereadytomate.Africanelephantswatchandlistentotheirsurroundingenvironmentforsignsofsomethingamiss.Theycommunicatevisuallybyusingtheirtrunksorearstosignalotherherdmembers.Tactilecommunicationisbetweenamotherandherchildortwoelephantstryingtomate.FormsofchemicalcommunicationalongwithscentmarkingamongAfricanelephantsisdonebymaleswhoarematingwiththefemalesinaclan.Aroundtheclanthemaleswillmarktreesorbusheswiththeirtusksorbysecretingasubstanceontothebush.(LaursenandBekoff,1978;O’Connell-Rodwell,etal.,2006;Soltis,2010) CommunicationChannels visual acoustic chemical OtherCommunicationModes scentmarks PerceptionChannels visual tactile acoustic chemical FoodHabits Africanelephantshaveaherbivorousdietconsistingoftreefoliage,fruits,herbs,grasses,andwoodincludingroots,twigs,andbark.Theirsourceoffibercomesfromchewingonbarkbutnotdigestingthebarkitself.Inordertoobtainbarkorroots,Africanelephantswilloverturnatreetoforeasieraccess.Usingtheirtrunksasatemporarycontainerorholding,Africanelephantsusetheirtrunkstogatherwaterandshootitintotheirmouths.Africanelephantswillfeedcontinuouslythroughouttheday,eatingopportunistically.Theymustconsumearound50gallonsofwatereverydayinordertostayhydrated. Africanelephantsarebothbrowsersandgrazers.Dependingontheseasonandlocation,herdsmaydependmoreononeortheotherfeedingtechnique.Typicallyduringthewetseasons,Africanelephantsaremoreparticularabouttheyconsume.Duringthisseason,theyaremorelikelytoforageongrasses.However,duringthedryseasonswhenfoodislessabundant,theywillbemoreflexiblewithwhattheyconsume.Duringbothseasons,Africanelephantstendtopickfoodsourcesthatarehighinnutritionalcontent.(Archie,etal.,2006;ChafotaandOwen-Smith,2012;Codron,etal.,2006;Codron,etal.,2013;LaursenandBekoff,1978) PrimaryDiet herbivore folivore frugivore lignivore PlantFoods leaves rootsandtubers wood,bark,orstems fruit Predation Duetotheirsize,Africanelephantsarenoteasypreyformanypredators.Whilelions(Pantheraleo),wilddogs(Lycaonpictus),hyenas(Crocutacrocuta),andNilecrocodiles(Crocodilusniloticus)arepredatorsofAfricanelephants,themajorityofthesepredatorspreyontheyoungelephantsthatlagbehindtherestoftheirgroup.Thesepredatorswillattempttohuntelephantsatnight,duetothesafetyleveldecreasingbecausetheherdcannotseewellatnight.However,thesepredatorsarenottheproblemfortheAfricanelephantpopulation.Humans(Homosapiens)huntthesecreaturesfortheirivorytusksandleatheryskin.(Joubert,2006;LaursenandBekoff,1978) KnownPredators lions(Pantheraleo) wilddogs(Lycaonpictus) hyenas(Crocutacrocuta) Nilecrocodiles(Crocodilusniloticus) humans(Homosapiens) EcosystemRoles Africanelephantsarethoughttobeakeystonespecies,becauseinsmallnumbers,theyhavelastingimpacts.Theyoftenarelabelledasbioengineers.Forexample,theirdestructionoralteringoftreespositivelyinfluencesherpetofaunaldiversity,astheycreatemorethree-dimensionalhabitatdiversityfortheseherps. TherearemanyparasiticspeciesthatuseAfricanelephantsastheirhost.ThereisawidevarietytothekindofparasitesthatinfectAfricanelephantssuchasflukes(Protofasciolarobusta),ticks,bloodsuckingflies(Anthomyidae),roundworms(Strongyloidespapillosus,Haemonchuscontortus,Trichostrongyluscolubriformis,Murshidia,Oesophagostomumcolumbianum),lice,botflies(Pharyngobolusafricanus,Platycobboldialoxodontis,Rodhainomyiaroverei,Ruttenialoxodontis,Neocuterebrasquamosa>>),warbleflies(Hypoderma),protozoanparasites(Babesia,Eimeriabovis),andhookworms(Ancylostomaduodenale).Africanelephantsdohaveamutualisticrelationshipwithbirds,asthebirdswillfeedontheskinparasitesoftheelephants,providingthemamealwhileriddingtheelephantsofsomeparasites. WhiteegretsBubulcusibismayhaveamutualisticrlationshipwithAfricanelephants.Thesespeciesoftenareseentogether,withtheegretbeloworatoptheelephant.Thepresumptionisthatthebirdsarefeedingonparasites.(Baines,etal.,2015;LaursenandBekoff,1978;McLean,etal.,2012;Nasseri,etal.,2011;ZumptandWetzel,1970) EcosystemImpact createshabitat keystonespecies MutualistSpecies whiteegrets(Bubulcusibis) Commensal/ParasiticSpecies warbleflies(Hypoderma) bloodsuckingflies(Anthomyidae) roundworms(Murshidia) roundworms(Oesophagostomumcolumbianum) roundworms(Strongyloidespapillosus) roundworms(Haemonchuscontortus) roundworms(Trichostrongyluscolubriformis) flukes(Protofasciolarobusta) botflies(Pharyngobolusafricanus) botflies(Platycobboldialoxodontis) botflies(Rodhainomyiaroverei) botflies(Ruttenialoxodontis) botflies(Neocuterebrasquamosa) protozoanparasites(Eimeriabovis) protozoanparasites(Babesia) lice(Siphonaptera) ticks(Acari) EconomicImportanceforHumans:Positive Africanelephantsareusedforavarietyofreasonsthatbenefithumans,ofteninvolvingthekillingoftheseelephants.Africanelephantscansimplybeusedaslargesporthuntingfortrophiesortheycanbehuntedfortheirtusks,ears,feet,andmeat.Becausetheirtusksaremadeofivory,theyhavebeenusedfornumerousreasonssuchasbilliardballs,dice,pianokeys,andmostcommonly,decorativecarvings.Ivorycanbesoldforahighprice,allowingsomeonetoliveoffthepriceofafewpounds.Theirlargeearsareconvertedintoleathertomakepurses.Theirfeetcanbepreservedandmadeintofurniture.However,giventheconservationstatusofAfricanelephants,theseusesofelephantpartsaredifficulttojustify.(LaursenandBekoff,1978;Wittemyer,2011;GaoandClark,2014;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Wittemyer,2011) PositiveImpacts food bodypartsaresourceofvaluablematerial EconomicImportanceforHumans:Negative Africanelephantsdonothavemanynegativeeconomicimpactsonhumans.Africanelephantsdestroyvegetationbyusingitasafoodsourceorbyknockingitdownduetotheirmassivesize.Ifelephantsareraidingcropsforfoodandpeoplecometostopthem,theelephantsmightchasedownthepeopleandkillthem.(Gadd,2005;LaursenandBekoff,1978;Thomas,etal.,2008) NegativeImpacts injureshumans ConservationStatus AccordingtotheIUCNRedList,Africanelephantsarelistedasa"Vulnerable"species.CITESappendiceslistAfricanelephantsinbothAppendixIandAppendixII.AfricanelephantsinBotswana,Namibia,SouthAfrica,andZimbabwearelistedinAppendixII,whileAfricanelephantsinothercountriesarelistedinAppendixI.AppendixImeansthespeciesisindangerofextinction.ThisAppendixprotectsthespeciesbymakinginternationaltradeillegalwhendealingwithAfricanelephants.AppendixIIstatesthatthespeciesisnotendangered,butcouldbecomesoifpoachingisnotregulated.TheUSFederalListhavelistedAfricanelephantsasa"Threatened"species. Thereasonsomeelephantpopulationsareindeclineincertaincountriesisbecausehuntingislegalinthesecountries.However,illegalpoachingthatisnotprosecutedhasthesamenegativeimpact.Elephantsaresoldandboughtlegallyorillegallyfortheirhides,fur,tusks,andmeat.Despiteaninternationalbanonthesaleofivorysince1989,tradeinillegalivorydoubledfrom2007-2014.Organizedcrimecombinedwithcorruptgovernmentofficialsmakesitincreasinglydifficulttopunishoffenders. AnotherreasonforthedeclineofAfricanelephantsisthattheyarelosingtheirhabitatsduetohumandevelopmentandexpansion. InordertocombatfurtherdeclineofAfricanelephants,somepopulationshavebeenmovedtoprotectedareastopreventpoaching.However,about70%ofthecurrentrangeisunprotectedlands.So,threatsareon-going.Somemanagementeffortshavebeensuccessfulatincreasinglocalpopulations,somuchsothatcontraceptionortrap-and-relocateprogramshadtobeimplementedtosustainthehabitat.Anotherhardshipisthatherdsaretreateddifferentlyacrosspoliticalboundaries-thelegalityofhunting,thelocals'attitudestowardselephants,andthepermissabilityofornon-actiontocombatillegalpoachingallaffectthepopulations.Larger-scaleconservationplansthatcrosscountryboundariesmayaddresssomeoftheseissues.(Bennett,2015;Blanc,2008;LaursenandBekoff,1978) IUCNRedList Vulnerable Moreinformation IUCNRedList Vulnerable Moreinformation USFederalList Threatened CITES AppendixI AppendixII StateofMichiganList Nospecialstatus Contributors MeghanHoward(author),RadfordUniversity,KarenPowers(editor),RadfordUniversity,AlexAtwood(editor),RadfordUniversity,MarisaDameron(editor),RadfordUniversity,TanyaDewey(editor),UniversityofMichigan-AnnArbor. Glossary Ethiopian livinginsub-SaharanAfrica(southof30degreesnorth)andMadagascar. acoustic usessoundtocommunicate bilateralsymmetry havingbodysymmetrysuchthattheanimalcanbedividedinoneplaneintotwomirror-imagehalves.Animalswithbilateralsymmetryhavedorsalandventralsides,aswellasanteriorandposteriorends.SynapomorphyoftheBilateria. chemical usessmellsorotherchemicalstocommunicate colonial usedlooselytodescribeanygroupoforganismslivingtogetherorincloseproximitytoeachother-forexamplenestingshorebirdsthatliveinlargecolonies.Morespecificallyreferstoagroupoforganismsinwhichmembersactasspecializedsubunits(acontinuous,modularsociety)-asinclonalorganisms. cooperativebreeder helpersprovideassistanceinraisingyoungthatarenottheirown desertordunes indesertslow(lessthan30cmperyear)andunpredictablerainfallresultsinlandscapesdominatedbyplantsandanimalsadaptedtoaridity.Vegetationistypicallysparse,thoughspectacularbloomsmayoccurfollowingrain.Desertscanbecoldorwarmanddailytemperatestypicallyfluctuate.Induneareasvegetationisalsosparseandconditionsaredry.Thisisbecausesanddoesnotholdwaterwellsolittleisavailabletoplants.Indunesnearseasandoceansthisiscompoundedbytheinfluenceofsaltintheairandsoil.Saltlimitstheabilityofplantstotakeupwaterthroughtheirroots. diurnal activeduringtheday,2.lastingforoneday. dominancehierarchies rankingsystemorpeckingorderamongmembersofalong-termsocialgroup,wheredominancestatusaffectsaccesstoresourcesormates endothermic animalsthatusemetabolicallygeneratedheattoregulatebodytemperatureindependentlyofambienttemperature.EndothermyisasynapomorphyoftheMammalia,althoughitmayhavearisenina(nowextinct)synapsidancestor;thefossilrecorddoesnotdistinguishthesepossibilities.Convergentinbirds. femaleparentalcare parentalcareiscarriedoutbyfemales fertilization unionofeggandspermatozoan folivore ananimalthatmainlyeatsleaves. food Asubstancethatprovidesbothnutrientsandenergytoalivingthing. frugivore ananimalthatmainlyeatsfruit herbivore Ananimalthateatsmainlyplantsorpartsofplants. iteroparous offspringareproducedinmorethanonegroup(litters,clutches,etc.)andacrossmultipleseasons(orotherperiodshospitabletoreproduction).Iteroparousanimalsmust,bydefinition,surviveovermultipleseasons(orperiodicconditionchanges). keystonespecies aspecieswhosepresenceorabsencestronglyaffectspopulationsofotherspeciesinthatareasuchthattheextirpationofthekeystonespeciesinanareawillresultintheultimateextirpationofmanymorespeciesinthatarea(Example:seaotter). motile havingthecapacitytomovefromoneplacetoanother. nativerange theareainwhichtheanimalisnaturallyfound,theregioninwhichitisendemic. nocturnal activeduringthenight nomadic generallywandersfromplacetoplace,usuallywithinawell-definedrange. polygynandrous thekindofpolygamyinwhichafemalepairswithseveralmales,eachofwhichalsopairswithseveraldifferentfemales. rainforest rainforests,bothtemperateandtropical,aredominatedbytreesoftenformingaclosedcanopywithlittlelightreachingtheground.Epiphytesandclimbingplantsarealsoabundant.Precipitationistypicallynotlimiting,butmaybesomewhatseasonal. scentmarks communicatesbyproducingscentsfromspecialgland(s)andplacingthemonasurfacewhetherotherscansmellortastethem scrubforest scrubforestsdevelopinareasthatexperiencedryseasons. sexual reproductionthatincludescombiningthegeneticcontributionoftwoindividuals,amaleandafemale sexualornamentation oneofthesexes(usuallymales)hasspecialphysicalstructuresusedincourtingtheothersexorfightingthesamesex.Forexample:antlers,elongatedtails,specialspurs. social associateswithothersofitsspecies;formssocialgroups. tactile usestouchtocommunicate terrestrial Livingontheground. threatened Thetermisusedinthe1994IUCNRedListofThreatenedAnimalstorefercollectivelytospeciescategorizedasEndangered(E),Vulnerable(V),Rare(R),Indeterminate(I),orInsufficientlyKnown(K)andinthe1996IUCNRedListofThreatenedAnimalstorefercollectivelytospeciescategorizedasCriticallyEndangered(CR),Endangered(EN),orVulnerable(VU). tropical theregionoftheearththatsurroundstheequator,from23.5degreesnorthto23.5degreessouth. tropicalsavannaandgrassland Aterrestrialbiome.Savannasaregrasslandswithscatteredindividualtreesthatdonotformaclosedcanopy.ExtensivesavannasarefoundinpartsofsubtropicalandtropicalAfricaandSouthAmerica,andinAustralia. savanna Agrasslandwithscatteredtreesorscatteredclumpsoftrees,atypeofcommunityintermediatebetweengrasslandandforest.SeealsoTropicalsavannaandgrasslandbiome. temperategrassland Aterrestrialbiomefoundintemperatelatitudes(>23.5°NorSlatitude).Vegetationismadeupmostlyofgrasses,theheightandspeciesdiversityofwhichdependlargelyontheamountofmoistureavailable.Fireandgrazingareimportantinthelong-termmaintenanceofgrasslands. visual usessighttocommunicate viviparous reproductioninwhichfertilizationanddevelopmenttakeplacewithinthefemalebodyandthedevelopingembryoderivesnourishmentfromthefemale. year-roundbreeding breedingtakesplacethroughouttheyear References Archie,E.,T.Morrison,C.Foley,C.Moss,S.Alberts.2006.DominancerankrelationshipsamongwildfemaleAfricanelephants,Loxodontaafricana.AnimalBehaviour,71/1:117-127. Baines,L.,E.Morgan,M.Ofthile,K.Evans.2015.Occurrenceandseasonalityofinternalparasiteinfectioninelephants,Loxodontaafricana,intheOkavangoDelta,Botswana.InternationalJournalforParasitology,4/1:43-48. Bennett,E.2015.LegalivorytradeinacorruptworldanditsimpactonAfricanelephantpopulations.ConservationBiology,29/1:953-956. Blanc,J.2008."Loxodontaafricana"(On-line).TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies2008:e.T12392A3339343. Accessed September15,2016 athttp://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12392A3339343.en. Carey,J.,D.Judge.2000.LongevityRecords:LifeSpansofMammals,Birds,Amphibians,Reptiles,andFish.Denmark:OdenseUniversityPress. Chafota,J.,N.Owen-Smith.2012.Selectivefeedingbyamegaherbivore,theAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana).JournalofMammalogy,93/3:698-705. 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Search Entersearchtext Search Searchinfeature TaxonInformation ContributorGalleries Topics Classification ExploreData@Quaardvark SearchGuide NavigationLinks Information Pictures Specimens Classification Classification Kingdom Animalia animals Animalia:information(1) Animalia:pictures(22861) Animalia:specimens(7109) Animalia:sounds(722) Animalia:maps(42) Phylum Chordata chordates Chordata:information(1) Chordata:pictures(15213) Chordata:specimens(6829) Chordata:sounds(709) Subphylum Vertebrata vertebrates Vertebrata:information(1) Vertebrata:pictures(15168) Vertebrata:specimens(6827) Vertebrata:sounds(709) Class Mammalia mammals Mammalia:information(1) Mammalia:pictures(4389) Mammalia:specimens(6622) Mammalia:sounds(13) Order Proboscidea elephants Proboscidea:information(1) Proboscidea:pictures(53) Proboscidea:specimens(6) Family Elephantidae elephants Elephantidae:pictures(53) Elephantidae:specimens(6) Genus Loxodonta Africanelephants Loxodonta:pictures(29) Loxodonta:specimens(1) Species Loxodontaafricana Africanbushelephant Loxodontaafricana:information(1) Loxodontaafricana:pictures(29) Loxodontaafricana:specimens(1) Tocitethispage: Howard,M.2017."Loxodontaafricana"(On-line),AnimalDiversityWeb.AccessedJuly29,2022athttps://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Loxodonta_africana/ Disclaimer: TheAnimalDiversityWebisaneducationalresourcewrittenlargelybyandforcollegestudents.ADWdoesn'tcoverallspeciesintheworld,nordoesitincludeallthelatestscientificinformationaboutorganismswedescribe.Thoughweeditouraccountsforaccuracy,wecannotguaranteeallinformationinthoseaccounts.WhileADWstaffandcontributorsprovidereferencestobooksandwebsitesthatwebelievearereputable,wecannotnecessarilyendorsethecontentsofreferencesbeyondourcontrol. 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