African bush elephant - Wikipedia

The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), also known as the African savanna elephant, is one of two living African elephant species. Africanbushelephant FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Speciesofmammal AfricanbushelephantTemporalrange:Holocene–Recent AnelephantinMikumiNationalPark,Tanzania Conservationstatus Endangered (IUCN3.1)[2] CITESAppendixI (CITES)[2][note1] Scientificclassification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Proboscidea Family: Elephantidae Genus: Loxodonta Species: L. africana[1] Binomialname Loxodontaafricana[1](Blumenbach,1797) Subspecies Seetext RangeoftheAfricanbushelephant  Resident  Possiblyresident  Possiblyextinct  Residentandreintroduced Synonyms Elephasafricanus TheAfricanbushelephant(Loxodontaafricana),alsoknownastheAfricansavannaelephant,isoneoftwolivingAfricanelephantspecies.Itisthelargestlivingterrestrialanimal,withbullsreachingashoulderheightofupto3.96 m(13 ft0 in)andabodymassofupto10.4 t(11.5shorttons).[3] Itisdistributedacross37Africancountriesandinhabitsforests,grasslandsandwoodlands,wetlandsandagriculturalland.Since2021,ithasbeenlistedasEndangeredontheIUCNRedList.Itisthreatenedforemostbyhabitatdestruction,andinpartsofitsrangealsobypoachingformeatandivory.[2]Themenstrualcyclelaststhreetofourmonths,andfemalesarepregnantfor22months,thelongestgestationperiodofanymammal.[4]Itisasocialmammal,travellinginherdscomposedofcowsandtheiroffspring.Adultbullsusuallylivealoneorinsmallbachelorgroups.Itisaherbivore,feedingongrasses,creepers,herbs,leaves,andbark. Contents 1Taxonomy 1.1Phylogeny 2Characteristics 2.1Skinandears 2.2Size 2.3Trunk 2.4Tusks 2.5Molars 3Distributionandhabitat 4Behaviorandecology 4.1Socialbehavior 4.2Diet 4.3Communication 4.4Musth 4.5Reproduction 4.6Predators 5Threats 5.1Poaching 5.2Habitatchanges 5.3Pathogens 6Conservation 6.1Status 6.2Incaptivity 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Taxonomy[edit] ElephasafricanuswasthescientificnameproposedbyJohannFriedrichBlumenbachin1797.[5] LoxodontewasproposedasgenericnameforAfricanelephantsbyFrédéricCuvierin1825.Thisnamereferstothelozenge-shapedenamelofthemolarteeth,whichdifferssignificantlyfromtheshapeoftheAsianelephant'smolarenamel.[6] Inthe19thand20thcenturies,severalzoologicalspecimensweredescribedbynaturalistsandcuratorsofnaturalhistorymuseumsfromvariouspartsofAfrica,including: Elephas(Loxodonta)oxyotisandElephas(Loxodonta)knochenhaueribyPaulMatschiein1900.ThefirstwasaspecimenfromtheupperAtbaraRiverinnorthernEthiopia,andthesecondaspecimenfromtheKilwaareainTanzania.[7] Elephasafricanustoxotis,selousi,peeli,cavendishi,orleansiandrothschildibyRichardLydekkerin1907whoassumedthatearsizeisadistinguishingcharacterforarace.ThesespecimenswereshotinSouthAfrica,MashonalandinZimbabwe,AberdareMountainsandLakeTurkanaareainKenya,inSomalilandandinwesternSudan,respectively.[8] NorthAfricanelephant(L.a.pharaohensis)byPaulusEdwardPierisDeraniyagalain1948wasaspecimenfromFayuminEgypt.[9] Today,thesenamesareallconsideredsynonyms.[1] Phylogeny[edit] AgeneticstudybasedonmitogenomicanalysisrevealedthattheAfricanandAsianelephantgeneticallydivergedabout7.6millionyearsago.[10] PhylogeneticanalysisofnuclearDNAofAfricanbushandforestelephants,Asianelephant,woollymammothandAmericanmastodonrevealedthattheAfricanbushelephantandtheAfricanforestelephantformasistergroupthatgeneticallydivergedatleast1.9millionyearsago.Theyarethereforeconsidereddistinctspecies.Geneflowbetweenthetwospecieshowever,mighthaveoccurredafterthesplit.[11] SkullsofAfricanbushelephant(left)andAfricanforestelephant(right) SkullofamaleAfricanbushelephantondisplayattheMuseumofOsteology,OklahomaCity SkeletonofafemaleAfricanbushelephantondisplayattheMuseumofOsteology,OklahomaCity Characteristics[edit] Skinandears[edit] Largeears TheAfricanbushelephanthasgreyskinwithscantyhairs.Itslargeearscoverthewholeshoulder,[12]andcangrowaslargeas2 m× 1.5 m(6 ft7 in× 4 ft11 in).[13] Largeearshelptoreducebodyheat;flappingthemcreatesaircurrentsandexposeslargebloodvesselsontheinnersidestoincreaseheatlossduringhotweather.[14]TheAfricanbushelephant'searsarepointedandtriangularshaped.Itsoccipitalplaneslopesforward.Itsbackisshapedmarkedlyconcave.Itssturdytusksarecurvedoutandpointforward.[15] Size[edit] Averagesizeofadultswiththelargestrecordedindividualincluded TheAfricanbushelephantisthelargestandheaviestlandanimalonEarth,withamaximumrecordedshoulderheightofanadultbullof3.96 m(13.0 ft)andanestimatedweightofupto10.4 t(11.5shorttons).Onaverage,malesareabout3.20 m(10.5 ft)tallattheshoulderandweigh6.0 t(6.6shorttons),whilefemalesaremuchsmalleratabout2.60 m(8 ft6 in)tallattheshoulderand3.0 t(3.3shorttons)inweight.[3][16][17][18]Elephantsattaintheirmaximumstaturewhentheycompletethefusionoflong-boneepiphyses,occurringinmalesaroundtheageof40andfemalesaroundtheageof25.[3] Trunk[edit] Thetrunkisaprehensileelongationoftheupperlipandnose.Shorttactilehairgrowsonthetrunk,whichhastwofinger-likeprocessesonthetip.[19] Thishighlysensitiveorganisinnervatedprimarilybythetrigeminalnerve,andthoughttobemanipulatedbyabout40,000–60,000muscles.Becauseofthismuscularstructure,thetrunkissostrongthatelephantscanuseitforliftingabout3%oftheirownbodyweight.Theyuseitforsmelling,touching,feeding,drinking,dusting,soundproduction,loading,defending,andattacking.[14] Functionallossofthetrunkduetofloppytrunksyndromesometimesforceselephantstocarrytheirtrunksovertheirtusksandwalkintodeepwaterinordertodrink.[20]A2021studyfoundthatAfricanelephantscanalsousetheirtrunkstosuctionupfood,capableofinhaling"atspeedsexceeding490feetpersecond,oralmost30timesasfastashumanscansneeze."[21] Tusks[edit] TuskofanAfricanbushelephant Bothsexeshavetusks,whicheruptwhentheyare1–3yearsoldandgrowthroughoutlife.[22]Tusksgrowfromdeciduousteethknownastushesthatdevelopintheupperjawandconsistofacrown,rootandpulpalcavity,whicharecompletelyformedsoonafterbirth.Tushesreachalengthof5 cm(2.0 in).[23] Theyarecomposedofdentinandcoatedwithathinlayerofcementum.Theirtipsbearaconicallayerofenamelthatisusuallywornoffwhentheelephantisfiveyearsold.[24] Tusksofbullsgrowfasterthantusksoffemales.Meanweightoftusksattheageof60yearsis109 kg(240 lb)inbulls,and17.7 kg(39 lb)incows.[22] ThelongestknowntuskofanAfricanbushelephantmeasured3.51 m(11.5 ft)andweighed117 kg(258 lb).[25] Molars[edit] MolarofanadultAfricanbushelephant ThedentalformulaoftheAfricanbushelephantis1.0.3.30.0.3.3 × 2=26.Itdevelopssixmolarsineachjawquadrantthateruptatdifferentagesanddifferinsize.[22]Thefirstmolarsgrowtoasizeof2 cm(0.79 in)wideby4 cm(1.6 in)long,arewornbytheageofoneyearandlostbytheageofabout2.5years.Thesecondmolarsstartprotrudingattheageofaboutsixmonths,growtoasizeof4 cm(1.6 in)wideby7 cm(2.8 in)longandarelostbytheageof6–7years.Thethirdmolarsprotrudeattheageofaboutoneyear,growtoasizeof5.2 cm(2.0 in)wideby14 cm(5.5 in)longandarelostbytheageof8–10years.Thefourthmolarsshowbytheageof6–7years,growtoasizeof6.8 cm(2.7 in)wideby17.5 cm(6.9 in)longandarelostbytheageof22–23years.Thedentalalveoliofthefifthmolarsarevisiblebytheageof10–11years.Theygrowtoasizeof8.5 cm(3.3 in)wideby22 cm(8.7 in)longandarewornbytheageof45–48years.Thedentalalveoliofthelastmolarsarevisiblebytheageof26–28years.Theygrowtoasizeof9.4 cm(3.7 in)wideby31 cm(12 in)longandarewellwornbytheageof65years.[26] Distributionandhabitat[edit] TheAfricanbushelephantoccursinSub-SaharanAfricaincludingUganda,Kenya,Tanzania,Botswana,Zimbabwe,Namibia,Zambia,andAngola.Itmovesbetweenavarietyofhabitats,includingsubtropicalandtemperateforests,dryandseasonallyfloodedgrasslands,andwoodlands,wetlandsandagriculturallandfromsealeveltomountainslopes.InMaliandNamibia,italsoinhabitsdesertandsemi-desertareas.[2] InEthiopia,theAfricanbushelephanthashistoricallybeenrecordeduptoanelevationof2,500 m(8,200 ft).Bythelate1970s,thepopulationhaddeclinedtoaherdintheDawaRivervalleyandoneclosetotheKenyanborder.[27] Behaviorandecology[edit] Socialbehavior[edit] ElephantfamilyinAmboseliNationalPark,KenyaYoungbullsinabachelorgroupinHwangeNationalPark,Zimbabwe Thecoreofelephantsocietyisthefamilyunit,whichcomprisesseveraladultcows,theirdaughters,andtheirprepubertalsons.IainDouglas-Hamilton,whoobservedAfricanbushelephantsfor4.5yearsinLakeManyaraNationalPark,coinedtheterm'kinshipgroup'fortwoormorefamilyunitsthathavecloseties.Thefamilyunitisledbyamatriarchwhoattimesalsoleadsthekinshipgroup.[28][29]Groupscooperateinlocatingfoodandwater,inself-defense,andincaringforoffspring(termedallomothering).[28]Groupsizevariesseasonallyandbetweenlocations.InTsavoEastandTsavoWestNationalParks,groupsarebiggerintherainyseasonandinareaswithopenvegetation.[30] Aerialsurveysinthelate1960stoearly1970srevealedanaveragegroupsizeof6.3individualsinUganda'sRwenzoriNationalParkand28.8individualsinChamburaGameReserve.Inbothsites,elephantsaggregatedduringthewetseason,whereasgroupsweresmallerinthedryseason.[31] AbullelephantstretchinguptobreakoffabranchintheOkavangoDelta,Botswana Youngbullsgraduallyseparatefromthefamilyunitwhentheyarebetween10and19yearsold.Theyrangealoneforsometimeorformall-malegroups.[32]A2020studyhighlightedtheimportanceofoldbullsforthenavigationandsurvivalofherdsandraisedconcernsovertheremovalofoldbullsas"currentlyoccur[ring]inbothlegaltrophyhuntingandillegalpoaching".[33] Diet[edit] TheAfricanbushelephantisherbivorous.Itsdietconsistsmainlyofgrasses,creepersandherbs.Adultscanconsumeupto150 kg(330 lb)perday.[13]Duringthedryseason,thedietalsoincludesleavesandbark.Treebarkinparticularcontainsahighlevelofcalcium.[34]ElephantsinBabilleElephantSanctuaryconsumeleavesandfruitofcherimoya,papaya,banana,guavaandleaves,stemsandseedsofmaize,sorghumandsugarcane.[35] Tosupplementtheirdietwithminerals,theycongregateatmineral-richwater-holes,termitemoundsandminerallicks.[36]SaltlicksvisitedbyelephantsintheKalaharicontainhighconcentrationsofwater-solublesodium.[37]Elephantsdrink180–230litres(50–60 US gal)ofwaterdaily,andseemtoprefersiteswherewaterandsoilcontainssodium.InKrugerNationalParkandontheshoreofLakeKariba,elephantswereobservedtoingestwoodash,whichalsocontainssodium.[38] Communication[edit] Africabushelephantsusetheirtrunksfortactilecommunication.Whengreeting,alowerrankingindividualwillinsertthetipofitstrunkintoitssuperior'smouth.Elephantswillalsostretchouttheirtrunktowardsanapproachingindividualtheyintendtogreet.Motherelephantsreaassuretheiryoungwithtouches,embracesandrubbingswiththefoot,whileslappingdisciplinesthem.Duringcourtship,acouplewillcaressandintertwinewiththeirtrunkswhileplayandfightingindividualswrestlewiththem.[39] Elephantvocalsarevariationsofrumbles,trumpets,squealsandscreams.Rumblesaremainlyproducedforlong-distancecommunicationandcoverabroadrangeoffrequencieswhicharemostlybelowwhatahumancanhear.Infrasonicrumblescantravelvastdistancesandareimportantforattractingmatesandscaringoffrivals.[39] Lowfrequencyrumblevisualisedwithacousticcamera AtAmboseliNationalParkseveraldifferentinfrasoniccallshavebeenidentified:[40] Greetingrumble–isemittedbyadultfemalesmembersofafamilygroupthathaveunitedafterhavingbeenseparatedforseveralhours. Contactcall–soft,unmodulatedsoundsmadebyanindividualthathasbeenseparatedfromthegroupshave2 km(1.2 mi). Contactanswer–madeinresponsetothecontactcall;startsoutloud,butsoftenstowardtheend. "Let'sgo"rumble–asoftrumbleemittedbythematriarchtosignaltotheotherherdmembersthatitistimetomovetoanotherspot. Musthrumble–distinctive,low-frequencypulsatedrumbleemittedbymusthmales(nicknamedthe"motorcycle"). Femalechorus–alow-frequency,modulatedchorusproducedbyseveralcowsinresponsetoamusthrumble. Postcopulatorycall–madebyanoestrouscowaftermating. Matingpandemonium–callsofexcitementmadebyacow'sfamilyaftershehasmated. Growlsareaudiblerumblesandhappenduringgreetings.Wheninpainorfear,anelephantmakesanopen-mouthedgrowlknownasabellowwhileadrawn-outgrowlisamoan.Growlingcanescalateintoaroaringwhentheelephantisissuingathreat.Trumpetingismadebyblowingthroughthetrunkandsignalsexcitement,distressoraggression.Juvenileelephantssquealindistresswhilescreamingismadebyadultsforintimidation.[39] Bullinmusth Musth[edit] ObservationsofadultAfricanbushelephantbullsinAmboseliNationalParkrevealedthattheyexperienceswellingofthetemporalglandsandsecretionoffluid,themusthfluid,whichflowsdowntheircheeks.Theybegintodribbleurine,initiallyasdiscretedropsandlaterinaregularstream.Thesemanifestationsofmusthlastfromafewdaystomonths,dependingontheageandconditionofthebull.Whenabullhasbeenurinatingforalongtime,theproximalpartofthepenisandthedistalendofthesheathshowagreenishcoloration,termedthe'greenpenissyndrome'byJoycePooleandCynthiaMoss.[41]Malesinmusthbecomemoreaggressive.Theyguardandmatewithfemalesinestruswhostayclosertobullsinmusththantonon-musthbulls.[42]Urinarytestosteroneincreasesduringmusth.[43]Bullsbegintoexperiencemusthbytheageof24years.Periodsofmusthareshortandsporadicinyoungbullsupto35yearsold,lastingafewdaystoweeks.Olderbullsareinmusthfor2–5monthseveryyear.Musthoccursmainlyduringandfollowingtherainyseason,andwhenfemalesareinestrus.[44]Bullsinmusthoftenchaseeachotherandareaggressivetowardsotherbullsinmusth.Whenoldandhigh-rankingbullsinmusththreatenandchaseyoungmusthbulls,thelattereitherleavethegrouportheirmusthceases.[45] ElephantsandwhiterhinosmeetinPilanesbergNationalPark Youngbullsinmusthkilledabout50whiterhinocerosinPilanesbergNationalParkbetween1992and1997.Thisunusualbehaviorwasattributedtotheiryoungageandinadequatesocialisation;theywere17–25-year-oldorphansfromculledfamiliesthatgrewupwithouttheguidanceofdominantbulls.Whensixadultbullswereintroducedintothepark,theyoungbullsdidnotattackrhinosanymore,indicatingolderbullssuppressmusthandaggressivenessofyoungerbulls.[46][47]SimilarincidentswererecordedinHluhluwe-UmfoloziPark,whereyoungbullskilledfiveblackand58whiterhinocerosbetween1991and2001.Aftertheintroductionoftenbulls,eachupto45yearsold,thenumberofrhinoskilledbyelephantsdecreasedconsiderably.[48] Reproduction[edit] MatingritualinAddoElephantParkCowwithsix-week-oldcalfinZimbabweCalfofsixweeksinZimbabwe Spermatogenesisstartswhenbullsareabout15yearsold.[49] Cowsovulateforthefirsttimeattheageof11years.[50]Theyareinestrusfor2–6days.[51] Incaptivity,cowshaveanoestrouscyclelasting14–15weeks.Foetalgonadsenlargeduringthesecondhalfofpregnancy.[52] Africanbushelephantsmateduringtherainyseason.[50]Bullsinmusthcoverlongdistancesinsearchforcowsandassociatewithlargefamilyunits.Theylistenforthecows'loud,verylowfrequencycallsandattractcowsbycallingandbyleavingtrailsofstrong-smellingurine.Cowssearchforbullsinmusth,listenfortheircallsandfollowtheirurinetrails.[53] Bullsinmustharemoresuccessfulatobtainingmatingopportunitiesthannon-musthbulls.Cowsmoveawayfrombullsthatattempttotestherestrouscondition.Ifpursuedbyseveralbulls,theyrunaway.Oncetheychoosetheirmatingpartners,theystayawayfromotherbullsthatarethreatenedandchasedawaybythefavouredbull.Competitionbetweenbullsoverridestheirchoicesometimes.[51] Gestationlasts22months.Intervalbetweenbirthswasestimatedat3.9to4.7yearsinHwangeNationalPark.[50]Wherehuntingpressureonadultelephantswashighinthe1970s,cowsgavebirthoncein2.9to3.8years.[54]CowsinAmboseliNationalParkgavebirthonceinfiveyearsonaverage.[51] ThebirthofacalfwasobservedinTsavoEastNationalParkinOctober1990.Agroupof80elephantsincludingeightbullshadgatheredinthemorningina150 m(490 ft)radiusaroundthebirthsite.Asmallgroupofcalvesandcowsstoodnearthepregnantcow,rumblingandflappingtheirears.Onecowseemedtoassisther.Whileinlabour,fluidstreamedfromhertemporalandearcanals.Shekeptstandingwhilegivingbirth.Thenewborncalfstruggledtoitsfeetwithin30minutesandwalked20minuteslater.Themotherexpelledtheplacentaabout100minutesafterbirthandcovereditwithsoilimmediately.[55] Captive-borncalvesweighbetween100and120 kg(220and260 lb)atbirthandgainabout0.5 kg(1.1 lb)weightperday.[56] Cowslactateforabout4.8years.[57] Calvesexclusivelysuckletheirmother'smilkduringthefirstthreemonths.Thereafter,theystartfeedingindependentlyandslowlyincreasethetimespentfeedinguntiltheyaretwoyearsold.Duringthefirstthreeyears,malecalvesspendmoretimesucklingandgrowfasterthanfemalecalves.Afterthisperiod,cowsrejectmalecalvesmorefrequentlyfromtheirnipplesthanfemalecalves.[58] ThemaximumlifespanoftheAfricanbushelephantisbetween70and75years.[59]Itsgenerationlengthis25years.[60] Predators[edit] Adultelephantsareconsideredinvulnerabletopredation.[61]Calvesaresometimespreyedonbylionsandspottedhyenas.[62]Adultelephantsoftenchaseoffpredators,especiallylions,bymobbingbehavior.[63] InBotswana'sChobeNationalPark,lionsattackedandfedonjuvenileandsubadultelephantswhensmallerpreyspecieswerescarce.Between1993and1996,lionssuccessfullyattacked74elephants;26wereolderthannine,andonewasabullofover15years.Mostwerekilledatnight,andhuntsoccurredmoreoftenduringwaningmoonnightsthanduringbrightmoonnights.[64]Inthesamepark,lionskilledeightelephantsinOctober2005thatwereagedbetweenoneand11years,twoofthemolderthaneightyears.Successfulhuntstookplaceafterdarkwhenpridesexceeded27lionsandherdsweresmallerthanfiveelephants.[65] Threats[edit] TheAfricanbushelephantisthreatenedprimarilybyhabitatlossandfragmentationfollowingconversionofnaturalhabitatforlivestockfarming,plantationsofnon-timbercropsandbuildingofurbanandindustrialareas.Asaresult,human-elephantconflicthasincreased.[2] Poaching[edit] Poacherstargetforemostelephantbullsfortheirtusks,whichleadstoaskewedsexratioandaffectsthesurvivalchancesofapopulation.Accessofpoacherstounregulatedblackmarketsisfacilitatedbycorruptionandinperiodsofcivilwarinsomeelephantrangecountries.[66] InJune2002,acontainerpackedwithmorethan6.5 t(6.4longtons;7.2shorttons)ivorywasconfiscatedinSingapore.Itcontained42,120hankostampsand532tusksofAfricanbushelephantsthatoriginatedinSouthernAfrica,centeredinZambiaandneighboringcountries.Between2005and2006,atotalof23.461 t(23.090longtons;25.861shorttons)ivoryplus91unweighedtusksofAfricanbushelephantswereconfiscatedin12majorconsignmentsbeingshippedtoAsia.[67] Whentheinternationalivorytradereopenedin2006,thedemandandpriceforivoryincreasedinAsia.TheAfricanbushelephantpopulationinChad'sZakoumaNationalParknumbered3,900individualsin2005.Withinfiveyears,morethan3,200elephantswerekilled.Theparkdidnothavesufficientguardstocombatpoaching,andtheirweaponswereoutdated.Well-organizednetworksfacilitatedsmugglingtheivorythroughSudan.[68] PoachingalsoincreasedinKenyainthoseyears.[69] InSamburuNationalReserve,41bullswereillegallykilledbetween2008and2012,equivalentto31%ofthereserve'selephantpopulation.[70] Thesekillingswerelinkedtoconfiscationsofivoryandincreasedpricesforivoryonthelocalblackmarket.[71] About10,370tuskswereconfiscatedinSingapore,HongKong,Taiwan,Philippines,Thailand,Malaysia,KenyaandUgandabetween2007and2013.GeneticanalysisoftusksamplesshowedthattheyoriginatedfromAfricanbushelephantskilledinTanzania,Mozambique,Zambia,KenyaandUganda.MostoftheivorywassmuggledthroughEastAfricancountries.[72] Between2003and2015,illegalkillingof14,606Africanbushelephantswasreportedbyrangersacross29rangecountries.ChadisamajortransitcountryforsmugglingofivoryinWestAfrica.Thistrendwascurtailedbyraisingpenaltiesforpoachingandimprovinglawenforcement.[73] Duringthe20thcentury,theAfricanbushelephantpopulationwasseverelydecimated.[74]Poachingoftheelephanthasdatedbackallthewaytotheyearsof1970and1980,whichwasconsideredthelargestkillingsinhistory.Unfortunately,thespeciesisplacedinharm'swayduetothelimitedconservationareasprovidedinAfrica.Inmostcases,thekillingsoftheAfricanbushelephanthaveoccurredneartheoutskirtsoftheprotectedareas.[2] Inadditiontobeingpoached,thecarcassesofelephantsmaygetpoisonedbythepoachers,toavoiddetectionbyvultureswhichhelprangerstrackpoachingactivitybycirclingarounddeadanimals,andposeathreattothosevulturesorbirdsthatscavengeonthem.On20June2019,thecarcassesof468white-backedvultures,17white-headedvultures,28hoodedvultures,14lappet-facedvulturesand10capevultures,altogether537endangeredvultures,besides2tawnyeagles,werefoundinnorthernBotswana.Itissuspectedthattheydiedaftereatingthepoisonedcarcassesof3elephants.[75][76][77][78] Habitatchanges[edit] VastareasinSub-SaharanAfricaweretransformedforagriculturaluseandbuildingofinfrastructure.Thisdisturbanceleavestheelephantswithoutastablehabitatandlimitstheirabilitytoroamfreely.Largecorporationsassociatedwithcommercialloggingandmininghavestrippedaparttheland,givingpoacherseasyaccesstotheAfricanbushelephant.[79]Ashumandevelopmentgrows,thehumanpopulationfacesthetroubleofcontactwiththeelephantsmorefrequently,duetothespeciesneedforfoodandwater.FarmersresidinginnearbyareasgetintoconflictwiththeAfricanbushelephantsrummagingthroughtheircrops.Inmanycases,theykilltheelephantsinstantlyastheydisturbavillageorforageupontheircrops.[74]Deathscausedbybrowsingonrubbervine,aninvasivealienplant,havebeenreported.[80] Pathogens[edit] ObservationsatEtoshaNationalParkindicatethatAfricanbushelephantdieduetoanthraxforemostinNovemberattheendofthedryseason.[81]Anthraxsporesspreadthroughtheintestinaltractsofvultures,jackalsandhyaenasthatfeedonthecarcasses.Anthraxkilledover100elephantsinBotswanain2019.[82]Itisthoughtthatwildbushelephantscancontractfataltuberculosisfromhumans.[83]InfectionofthevitalorgansbyCitrobacterfreundiibacteriahascausedthedeathofanotherwisehealthybushelephantaftercaptureandtranslocation.[80] FromApriltoJune2020,over400bushelephantsdiedinBotswana'sOkavangoDeltaregionafterdrinkingfromdesiccatingwaterholesthatwereinfectedwithcyanobacteria.[84]Neurotoxinsproducedbythecyanobacteriacausedcalvesandadultelephantstowanderaroundconfused,emaciatedandindistress.Theelephantscollapsedwhenthetoxinimpairedtheirmotorfunctionsandtheirlegsbecameparalysed.Poaching,intentionalpoisoning,andanthraxwereexcludedaspotentialcauses.[85] Conservation[edit] AfricanbushelephantsmatinginTierparkBerlin BothAfricanelephantspecieshavebeenlistedonAppendixIoftheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlorasince1989.In1997,populationsofBotswana,Namibia,andZimbabwewereplacedonCITESAppendixII,aswerepopulationsofSouthAfricain2000.Community-basedconservationprogrammeshavebeeninitiatedinseveralrangecountries,whichcontributedtoreducehuman-elephantconflictandtoincreaselocalpeople'stolerancetowardselephants.[2] In1986,theAfricanElephantDatabasewasinitiatedwiththeaimtocollateandupdateinformationonthedistributionandstatusofelephantpopulationsinAfrica.Thedatabaseincludesresultsfromaerialsurveys,dungcounts,interviewswithlocalpeople,anddataonpoaching.[73] ResearchersdiscoveredthatplayingbacktherecordedsoundsofAfricanbeesisaneffectivemethodtodriveelephantsawayfromsettlements.[86] Status[edit] In1996,IUCNRedListassessorsfortheAfricanbushelephantconsideredthespeciesEndangered.Since2021,ithasbeenassessedEndangered,aftertheglobalpopulationwasfoundtohavedecreasedbymorethan50percentover3generations.[87]About70%ofitsrangeislocatedoutsideprotectedareas.[2] In2016,theglobalpopulationwasestimatedat415,428±20,111individualsdistributedinatotalareaof20,731,202 km2(8,004,362 sq mi),ofwhich30%isprotected.42%ofthetotalpopulationlivesinnineSouthernAfricancountriescomprising293,447±16,682individuals;Africa'slargestpopulationlivesinBotswanawith131,626±12,508individuals.[73] Incaptivity[edit] Thesocialbehaviorofelephantsincaptivitymimicsthatofthoseinthewild.Cowsarekeptwithothercows,ingroups,whilebullstendtobeseparatedfromtheirmothersatayoungage,andarekeptapart.AccordingtoSchulte,inthe1990s,inNorthAmerica,afewfacilitiesallowedbullinteraction.Elsewhere,bullswereonlyallowedtosmelleachother.Bullsandcowswereallowedtointeractforspecificpurposessuchasbreeding.Inthatevent,cowsweremoreoftenmovedtothebullthanthebulltothecow.Cowsaremoreoftenkeptincaptivitybecausetheyareeasierandlessexpensivetohouse.[88] Seealso[edit] Mammalsportal 2006Zakoumaelephantslaughter Dwarfelephant Elephantcognition Knysnaelephants Pygmyelephant Notes[edit] ^ThepopulationsofBotswana,Namibia,SouthAfricaandZimbabwearelistedinAppendixIIforspecificpurposes. References[edit] ^abShoshani,J.(2005)."OrderProboscidea".InWilson,D.E.;Reeder,D.M(eds.).MammalSpeciesoftheWorld:ATaxonomicandGeographicReference(3rd ed.).JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p. 91.ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.OCLC 62265494. ^abcdefghGobush,K.S.;Edwards,C.T.T.;Balfour,D.;Wittemeyer,G.;Maisels,F.&Taylor,R.D.(2021)[amendedversionof2021assessment]."Loxodontaafricana".IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.2021:e.T181008073A204401095.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T181008073A204401095.en.Retrieved15January2022. ^abcLarramendi,A.(2016)."Shoulderheight,bodymassandshapeofproboscideans"(PDF).ActaPalaeontologicaPolonica.61(3):537–574.doi:10.4202/app.00136.2014.S2CID 2092950. ^Foley,C.A.H.;Papageorge,S.;Wasser,S.K.(3August2001)."NoninvasiveStressandReproductiveMeasuresofSocialandEcologicalPressuresinFree-RangingAfricanElephants".ConservationBiology.15(4):1134–1142.doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.0150041134.x.ISSN 0888-8892.S2CID 84294169. ^Blumenbach,J.F.(1797)."2.Africanus".HandbuchderNaturgeschichte[HandbookofNaturalHistory](Fifth ed.).Göttingen:JohannChristianDieterich.p. 125. ^Cuvier,F.(1825)."Éléphantsd'Afrique".InGeoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,É.;Cuvier,F.(eds.).HistoireNaturelledesMammifères,avecdesfiguresoriginales,coloriées,dessinéesd'aprèsdesanimauxvivans.Vol. Tome6.Paris:A.Belain.pp. 117–118. ^Matschie,P.(1900)."GeographischeAbartendesAfrikanischenElefanten".SitzungsberichtederGesellschaftNaturforschenderFreundezuBerlin.3:189–197. ^Lydekker,R.(1907)."TheEarsasaRace-CharacterintheAfricanElephant".ProceedingsoftheZoologicalSocietyofLondon(JanuarytoApril):380–403.doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1907.tb01824.x. ^Deraniyagala,P.E.P.(1955).Someextinctelephants,theirrelatives,andthetwolivingspecies.Colombo:CeylonNationalMuseumsPublication. ^Rohland,N.;Malaspinas,A.S.;Pollack,J.L.;Slatkin,M.;Matheus,P.&Hofreiter,M.(2007)."Proboscideanmitogenomics:chronologyandmodeofelephantevolutionusingmastodonasoutgroup".PLOSBiology.5(8):e207.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050207.PMC 1925134.PMID 17676977. ^Rohland,N.;Reich,D.;Mallick,S.;Meyer,M.;Green,R.E.;Georgiadis,N.J.;Roca,A.L.&Hofreiter,M.(2010)."GenomicDNASequencesfromMastodonandWoollyMammothRevealDeepSpeciationofForestandSavannaElephants".PLOSBiology.8(12):e1000564.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000564.PMC 3006346.PMID 21203580. ^Jardine,W.(1836)."TheElephantofAfrica".TheNaturalist'sLibrary.Vol. V.NaturalHistoryofthePachydermes,Or,Thick-skinnedQuadrupeds.Edinburgh,London,Dublin:W.H.Lizars,SamuelHighley,W.Curry,jun.&Company.pp. 124–132. ^abEstes,R.D.(1999)."ElephantLoxodontaafricanaFamilyElephantidae,OrderProboscidea".TheSafariCompanion:AGuidetoWatchingAfricanMammalsIncludingHoofedMammals,Carnivores,andPrimates(Revisedandexpanded ed.).Vermont:ChelseaGreenPublishingCompany.pp. 223–233.ISBN 1-890132-44-6. ^abShoshani,J.(1978)."Generalinformationonelephantswithemphasisontusks".Elephant.1(2):20–31.doi:10.22237/elephant/1491234053. ^Grubb,P.;Groves,C.P.;Dudley,J.P.;Shoshani,J.(2000)."LivingAfricanelephantsbelongtotwospecies:Loxodontaafricana(Blumenbach,1797)andLoxodontacyclotis(Matschie,1900)".Elephant.2(4):1–4.doi:10.22237/elephant/1521732169. ^Laws,R.M.&Parker,I.S.C.(1968)."RecentstudiesonelephantpopulationsinEastAfrica".SymposiaoftheZoologicalSocietyofLondon.21:319–359. ^Hanks,J.(1972)."GrowthoftheAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)".EastAfricanWildlifeJournal.10(4):251–272.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1972.tb00870.x. ^Laws,R.M.;Parker,I.S.C.;Johnstone,R.C.B.(1975).ElephantsandTheirHabitats:TheEcologyofElephantsinNorthBunyoro,Uganda.Oxford:ClarendonPress. ^Laurson,B.&Bekoff,M.(1978)."Loxodontaafricana".MammalianSpecies(92):1–8.doi:10.2307/3503889.JSTOR 3503889. ^Kock,N.D.;Goedegebuure,S.A.;Lane,E.P.;Lucke,V.;Tyrrell,D.&Kock,M.D.(1994)."FlaccidTrunkParalysisinFree-rangingElephants(Loxodontaafricana)inZimbabwe".JournalofWildlifeDiseases.30(3):432–435.doi:10.7589/0090-3558-30.3.432.PMID 7933290.S2CID 85104902. ^Sima,Richard(1June2021)."ElephantTrunks:IsThereAnythingTheyCan'tDo?".TheNewYorkTimes. ^abcLaws,R.M.(1966)."AgecriteriafortheAfricanelephant:Loxodontaa.africana".AfricanJournalofEcology.4(1):1–37.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1966.tb00878.x. ^Raubenheimer,E.J.;VanHeerden,W.F.P.;VanNiekerk,P.J.;DeVos,V.&Turner,M.J.(1995)."Morphologyofthedeciduoustusk(tush)oftheAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)"(PDF).ArchivesofOralBiology.40(6):571–576.doi:10.1016/0003-9969(95)00008-D.PMID 7677604. ^Shoshani,J.(1996)."Skeletalandotherbasicanatomicalfeaturesofelephants".InShoshani,J.;Tassy,P.(eds.).TheProboscidea:EvolutionandPalaeoecologyofElephantsandTheirRelatives.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 9–20. ^Raubenheimer,E.J.;Bosman,M.C.;Vorster,R.&Noffke,C.E.(1998)."HistogenesisofthechequeredpatternofivoryoftheAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)".ArchivesofOralBiology.43(12):969–977.doi:10.1016/S0003-9969(98)00077-6.PMID 9877328. ^Jachmann,H.(1988)."EstimatingageinAfricanelephants:arevisionofLaws'molarevaluationtechnique".AfricanJournalofEcology.22(1):51–56.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1988.tb01127.x. ^Yalden,D.W.;Largen,M.J.&Kock,D.(1986)."CatalogueoftheMammalsofEthiopia.6.Perissodactyla,Proboscidea,Hyracoidea,Lagomorpha,Tubulidentata,Sirenia,andCetacea".MonitoreZoologicoItaliano.Supplemento21(1):31–103.doi:10.1080/03749444.1986.10736707. ^abDouglas-Hamilton,I.(1972).OntheecologyandbehaviouroftheAfricanelephant:theelephantsofLakeManyara(PhDthesis).Oxford:UniversityofOxford. ^Douglas-Hamilton,I.(1973)."OntheecologyandbehaviouroftheLakeManyaraelephants".EastAfricanWildlifeJournal.11(3–4):401–403.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00101.x. ^Leuthold,W.(1976)."GroupsizeinelephantsofTsavoNationalParkandpossiblefactorsinfluencingit".JournalofAnimalEcology.45(2):425–439.doi:10.2307/3883.JSTOR 3883. ^Eltringham,S.K.(1977)."ThenumbersanddistributionofelephantLoxodontaafricanaintheRwenzoriNationalParkandChamburaGameReserve,Uganda".AfricanJournalofEcology.15(1):19–39.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1977.tb00375.x. ^Moss,C.J.;Poole,J.H.(1983)."RelationshipsandsocialstructureofAfricanelephants".InHinde,R.A.;Berman,C.M.(eds.).PrimateSocialRelationships:AnIntegratedApproach.Oxford:Blackwell.pp. 315–325. ^Allen,C.R.B.;Brent,L.J.N.;Motsentwa,T.;Weiss,M.N.;Croft,D.P.(2020)."Importanceofoldbulls:leadersandfollowersincollectivemovementsofall-malegroupsinAfricansavannahelephants(Loxodontaafricana)".ScientificReports.10(1):13996.Bibcode:2020NatSR..1013996A.doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70682-y.PMC 7471917.PMID 32883968. ^Bax,P.N.;Sheldrick,D.L.W.(1963)."SomepreliminaryobservationsonthefoodofelephantintheTsavoRoyalNationalPark(East)ofKenya".AfricanJournalofEcology.1(1):40–51.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1963.tb00177.x. ^Biru,Y.;Bekele,A.(2012)."FoodhabitsofAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)inBabileElephantSanctuary,Ethiopia".TropicalEcology.53(1):43–52. ^Ruggiero,R.G.&Fay,J.M.(1994)."Utilizationoftermitariumsoilsbyelephantsanditsecologicalimplications".AfricanJournalofEcology.32(3):222–232.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1994.tb00573.x.{{citejournal}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Weir,J.S.(1969)."ChemicalpropertiesandoccurrenceonKalaharisandofsaltlickscreatedbyelephants".JournalofZoology.158(3):293–310.doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1969.tb02148.x. ^Weir,J.S.(1972)."SpatialdistributionofElephantsinanAfricanNationalParkinrelationtoenvironmentalsodium".Oikos.23(1):1–13.doi:10.2307/3543921.JSTOR 3543921. ^abcEstes,R.(1991).ThebehaviorguidetoAfricanmammals:includinghoofedmammals,carnivores,primates.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.pp. 263–66.ISBN 978-0-520-08085-0. ^Sukumar,R.(11September2003).TheLivingElephants:EvolutionaryEcology,Behaviour,andConservation.OxfordUniversityPress,USA.p. 145.ISBN 978-0-19-510778-4.OCLC 935260783. ^Poole,J.H.;Moss,C.J.(1981)."MusthintheAfricanelephant,Loxodontaafricana".Nature.292(5826):830–1.Bibcode:1981Natur.292..830P.doi:10.1038/292830a0.PMID 7266649.S2CID 4337060. ^Poole,J.H.(1982).Musthandmale-malecompetitionintheAfricanelephant(PhDthesis).Cambridge:UniversityofCambridge. ^Poole,J.H.;Kasman,L.H.;Ramsay,E.C.;Lasley,B.L.(1984)."MusthandurinarytestosteroneconcentrationsintheAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)".Reproduction.70(1):255–260.doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0700255.PMID 6694143. ^Poole,J.H.(1987)."RuttingbehaviorinAfricanelephants:thephenomenonofmusth".Behaviour.102(3–4):283–316.doi:10.1163/156853986X00171. ^Poole,J.H.(1989)."Announcingintent:theaggressivestateofmusthinAfricanelephants"(PDF).AnimalBehaviour.37(37):140–152.doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90014-6.S2CID 53190740. ^Slotow,R.;vanDyk,G.;Poole,J.;Page,B.;Klocke,A.(2000)."Olderbullelephantscontrolyoungmales".Nature.408(6811):425–426.Bibcode:2000Natur.408..425S.doi:10.1038/35044191.PMID 11100713.S2CID 136330. ^Slotow,R.;vanDyk,G.(2001)."Roleofdelinquentyoung'orphan'maleelephantsinhighmortalityofwhiterhinocerosinPilanesbergNationalPark,SouthAfrica".Koedoe(44):85–94. ^Slotow,R.;Balfour,D.;Howison,O.(2001)."KillingofblackandwhiterhinocerosesbyAfricanelephantsinHluhluwe-UmfoloziPark,SouthAfrica"(PDF).Pachyderm(31):14–20.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on25October2007. ^Hanks,J.(1973)."ReproductioninthemaleAfricanelephantintheLuangwaValley,Zambia".SouthAfricanJournalofWildlifeResearch.3(2):31–39. ^abcWilliamson,B.R.(1976)."ReproductioninfemaleAfricanelephantintheWankieNationalPark,Rhodesia".SouthAfricanJournalofWildlifeResearch.6(2):89–93. ^abcMoss,C.J.(1983)."OestrousbehaviourandfemalechoiceintheAfricanelephant".Behaviour.86(3/4):167–196.doi:10.1163/156853983X00354.JSTOR 4534283. ^Allen,W.(2006)."Ovulation,Pregnancy,PlacentationandHusbandryintheAfricanElephant(Loxodontaafricana)".PhilosophicalTransactions:BiologicalSciences.361(1469):821–834.doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1831.PMC 1609400.PMID 16627297. ^Poole,J.H.;Moss,C.J.(1989)."Elephantmatesearching:groupdynamicsandvocalandolfactorycommunication".InJewell,P.A.;Maloiy,G.M.O.(eds.).TheBiologyofLargeAfricanMammalsinTheirEnvironment.SymposiaoftheZoologicalSocietyofLondon.Vol. 61.London:ClarendonPress.pp. 111–125. ^Kerr,M.A.(1978)."ReproductionofelephantintheManaPoolsNationalPark,Rhodesia".Arnoldia(Rhodesia).8(29):1–11. ^McKnight,B.L.(1992)."BirthofanAfricanelephantinTsavoEastNationalPark,Kenya".AfricanJournalofEcology.30(1):87–89.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1992.tb00481.x. ^Lang,E.M.(1967)."ThebirthofanAfricanelephantLoxodontaafricanaatBasleZoo".InternationalZooYearbook.7(1):154–157.doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1967.tb00359.x. ^Smith,N.S.;Buss,I.O.(1973)."ReproductiveecologyofthefemaleAfricanelephant".TheJournalofWildlifeManagement.37(4):524–534.doi:10.2307/3800318.JSTOR 3800318. ^Lee,P.C.;Moss,C.J.(1986)."EarlymaternalinvestmentinmaleandfemaleAfricanelephantcalves".BehavioralEcologyandSociobiology.18(5):353–361.doi:10.1007/BF00299666.S2CID 10901693. ^Lee,P.C.;Sayialel,S.;Lindsay,W.K.;Moss,C.J.(2012)."Africanelephantagedeterminationfromteeth:validationfromknownindividuals".AfricanJournalofEcology.50(1):9–20.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01286.x. ^Pacifici,M.;Santini,L.;DiMarco,M.;Baisero,D.;Francucci,L.;GrottoloMarasini,G.;Visconti,P.;Rondinini,C.(2013)."Generationlengthformammals".NatureConservation.5(5):87–94.doi:10.3897/natureconservation.5.5734. ^Sinclair,A.R.E.;Mduma,S.&Brashares,J.S.(2003)."Patternsofpredationinadiversepredator–preysystem".Nature.425(6955):288–290.Bibcode:2003Natur.425..288S.doi:10.1038/nature01934.PMID 13679915.S2CID 29501319. ^Laursen,L.&Bekoff,M.(1978)."Loxodontaafricana"(PDF).MammalianSpecies.92(92):1–8.doi:10.2307/3503889.JSTOR 3503889.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on30April2013. ^McComb,K.;Shannon,G.;Durant,S.M.;Sayialel,K.;Slotow,R.;Poole,J.&Moss,C.(2011)."Leadershipinelephants:theadaptivevalueofage".ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonB:BiologicalSciences.278(1722):3270–3276.doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0168.PMC 3169024.PMID 21411454. ^Joubert,D.(2006)."Huntingbehaviouroflions(Pantheraleo)onelephants(Loxodontaafricana)intheChobeNationalPark,Botswana".AfricanJournalofEcology.44(2):279–281.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00626.x. ^Power,R.J.;Compion,R.X.S.(2009)."LionpredationonelephantsintheSavuti,ChobeNationalPark,Botswana".AfricanZoology.44(1):36–44.doi:10.3377/004.044.0104.S2CID 86371484. ^Lemieux,A.M.;Clarke,R.V.(2009)."TheinternationalbanonivorysalesanditseffectsonelephantpoachinginAfrica".TheBritishJournalofCriminology.49(4):451–471.doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030. ^Wasser,S.K.;Mailand,C.;Booth,R.;Mutayoba,B.;Kisamo,E.;Clark,B.;Stephens,M.(2007)."UsingDNAtotracktheoriginofthelargestivoryseizuresincethe1989tradeban".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.104(10):4228–4233.Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.4228W.doi:10.1073/pnas.0609714104.PMC 1805457.PMID 17360505. ^Poilecot,P.(2010)."Lebraconnageetlapopulationd'éléphantsauParcNationaldeZakouma(Tchad)".BoisetForêtsdesTropiques.303(303):93–102.doi:10.19182/bft2010.303.a20454. ^Douglas-Hamilton,I.(2009)."Thecurrentelephantpoachingtrend"(PDF).Pachyderm(45):154–157. ^Wittemyer,G.;Daballen,D.;Douglas-Hamilton,I.(2013)."ComparativeDemographyofanAt-RiskAfricanElephantPopulation".PLOSONE.8(1):e53726.Bibcode:2013PLoSO...853726W.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053726.PMC 3547063.PMID 23341984. ^Wittemyer,G.;Northrup,J.M.;Blanc,J.;Douglas-Hamilton,I.;Omondi,P.;Burnham,K.P.(2014)."IllegalkillingforivorydrivesglobaldeclineinAfricanelephants".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.111(36):13117–13121.Bibcode:2014PNAS..11113117W.doi:10.1073/pnas.1403984111.PMC 4246956.PMID 25136107. ^Wasser,S.K.;Brown,L.;Mailand,C.;Mondol,S.;Clark,W.;Laurie,C.;Weir,B.S.(2015)."GeneticassignmentoflargeseizuresofelephantivoryrevealsAfrica'smajorpoachinghotspots".Science.349(6243):84–87.Bibcode:2015Sci...349...84W.doi:10.1126/science.aaa2457.PMC 5535781.PMID 26089357. ^abcThouless,C.R.;Dublin,H.T.;Blanc,J.J.;Skinner,D.P.;Daniel,T.E.;Taylor,R.D.;Maisels,F.;Frederick,H.L.;Bouché,P.(2016).AfricanElephantStatusReport2016 :anupdatefromtheAfricanElephantDatabase(PDF).OccasionalPaperoftheIUCNSpeciesSurvivalCommissionNo.60.Gland:IUCNSSCAfricanElephantSpecialistGroup.ISBN 978-2-8317-1813-2. ^abCeballos,G.;Ehrlich,A.H.;Ehrlich,P.R.(2015).TheAnnihilationofNature:HumanExtinctionofBirdsandMammals.Baltimore,Maryland:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.pp.102.ISBN 1421417189. ^"Over500RareVulturesDieAfterEatingPoisonedElephantsinBotswana".AgenceFrance-Press.NDTV.21June2019.Retrieved28June2019. ^Hurworth,Ella(24June2019)."Morethan500endangeredvulturesdieaftereatingpoisonedelephantcarcasses".CNN.Retrieved28June2019. ^Solly,Meilan(24June2019)."Poachers'PoisonKills530EndangeredVulturesinBotswana".Smithsonian.Retrieved28June2019. ^Ngounou,Boris(27June2019)."BOTSWANA:Over500vulturesfounddeadaftermassivepoisoning".Afrik21.Retrieved28June2019. ^"FactsAboutAfricanElephants–TheMarylandZooinBaltimore".TheMarylandZooinBaltimore.Retrieved13November2017. ^abOrtega,Joaquín;Corpa,JuanM.;Orden,JoséA.;Blanco,Jorge;Carbonell,MaríaD.;Gerique,AmaliaC.;Latimer,Erin;Hayward,GaryS.;Roemmelt,Andreas;Kraemer,Thomas;Romey,Aurore;Kassimi,LabibB.;Casares,Miguel(15July2015)."AcutedeathassociatedwithCitrobacterfreundiiinfectioninanAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana)".JournalofVeterinaryDiagnosticInvestigation.27(5):632–636.doi:10.1177/1040638715596034.PMID 26179092. ^Lindeque,P.M.&Turnbull,P.C.(1994)."EcologyandepidemiologyofanthraxintheEtoshaNationalPark,Namibia".TheOnderstepoortJournalofVeterinaryResearch.61(1):71–83.PMID 7898901. ^"Botswana:Labteststosolvemysteryofhundredsofdeadelephants".BBC.2020.Retrieved3July2020. ^Miller,M.A.;Buss,P.;Roos,E.O.;Hausler,G.;Dippenaar,A.;Mitchell,E.;vanSchalkwyk,L.;Robbe-Austerman,S.;Waters,W.R.;Sikar-Gang,A.;Lyashchenko,K.P.;Parsons,S.D.C.;Warren,R.&vanHelden,P.(2019)."FatalTuberculosisinaFree-RangingAfricanElephantandOneHealthImplicationsofHumanPathogensinWildlife".FrontiersinVeterinaryScience.6:18.doi:10.3389/fvets.2019.00018.PMC 6373532.PMID 30788347. ^"Mysteriousmasselephantdie-offinBotswanawascausedbycyanobacteriapoisoning".sciencealert.com.AFP.22September2020.Retrieved24September2020. ^Brown,W.(2020)."NerveagentfearashundredsofelephantsperishmysteriouslyinBotswana".TheTelegraph.Retrieved3July2020. ^King,L.E.;Douglas-Hamilton,I.;Vollrath,F.(2007)."Africanelephantsrunfromthesoundofdisturbedbees".CurrentBiology.17(19):R832–R833.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.038.PMID 17925207.S2CID 30014793. ^Nuwer,Rachel(25March2021)."BothAfricanelephantspeciesarenowendangered,onecritically".NationalGeographic.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25March2021.Retrieved25March2021. ^Schulte,B.A.(2000)."Socialstructureandhelpingbehaviorincaptiveelephants".ZooBiology.19(5):447–459.doi:10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5<447::aid-zoo12>3.0.co;2-#. Furtherreading[edit] CaitlinO'Connell(2015).ElephantDon:ThePoliticsofaPachydermPosse.UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0226106113. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoLoxodontaafricana. WikispecieshasinformationrelatedtoLoxodontaafricana. ElephantInformationRepository–Anin-depthresourceonelephants "AfricanBushElephantLoxodontaafricana(Blumenbach1797)"attheEncyclopediaofLife ARKive–imagesandmoviesoftheAfricanBushElephant(Loxodontaafricana) BBCWildlifeFinder–ClipsfromtheBBCarchive,newsstoriesandsoundfilesoftheAfricanBushElephant ViewtheelephantgenomeonEnsembl PeopleNotPoaching:TheCommunitiesandIWTLearningPlatform Handwerk,B.(2006)."AfricanElephantsSlaughteredinHerdsNearChadWildlifePark".NationalGeographic.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1September2006.Retrieved1September2006. vteElephantsGeneralBehavior Cognition Musth Seismiccommunication Species Africanbushelephant NorthAfricanelephant Desertelephant Africanforestelephant Asianelephant Borneoelephant Indianelephant SriLankanelephant Sumatranelephant Syrianelephant Javanelephant Extinct Mammoth Mastodon Dwarfelephant Pygmymammoth HumanuseDomestication Elephantcrushing Elephantgoad Mahout Trainers Uses Executions Howdah Ivory Meat Racing Templeelephant Warelephant Weapons Elephantgun Howdahpistol Elephantsword CultureandhistoryBylocality China Europe Keralastate Thailand Related Culturaldepictionsofelephants Listofindividualelephants ElephantEncyclopedia Listoffictionalpachyderms vteExtantProboscideaspeciesbyfamily KingdomAnimalia PhylumChordata ClassMammalia InfraclassEutheria SuperorderAfrotheria Elephantidae(Elephants)Elephas Asianelephant(Elephasmaximus) Borneoelephant(Elephasmaximusborneensis) Indianelephant(Elephasmaximusindicus) SriLankanelephant(Elephasmaximusmaximus) Sumatranelephant(Elephasmaximussumatranus) Loxodonta(Africanelephants) Africanbushelephant(L.africana) Africanforestelephant(L.cyclotis) Category TaxonidentifiersLoxodontaafricana Wikidata:Q36557 Wikispecies:Loxodontaafricana ARKive:loxodonta-africana BOLD:27317 CoL:3W9KV CMS:loxodonta-africana ECOS:7724 EoL:289808 EPPO:LOXDAF Fossilworks:157818 GBIF:2435350 iNaturalist:43694 IRMNG:10804058 ITIS:584939 IUCN:181008073 MSW:11500009 NBN:NHMSYS0000376837 NCBI:9785 Species+:4521 TSA:9688 Elephasafricanus Wikidata:Q47311755 GBIF:8781257 ZooBank:55DEB564-42A0-4810-9BA8-620B1F3410BE Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany Israel UnitedStates CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_bush_elephant&oldid=1096429159" Categories:IUCNRedListendangeredspeciesElephantsMammalsofSub-SaharanAfricaAfrotropicalrealmfaunaSpeciesendangeredbyhabitatfragmentationHerbivorousmammalsEndangeredanimalsEndangeredbiotaofAfricaMammalsdescribedin1797TaxanamedbyJohannFriedrichBlumenbachHiddencategories:CS1:longvolumevalueCS1maint:multiplenames:authorslistArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataWikipediaindefinitelymove-protectedpagesUsedmydatesfromSeptember2020Articleswith'species'microformatsCommonscategorylinkisonWikidataEncyclopediaofLifeIDsameasWikidataTaxonbarswithautomaticallyaddedoriginalcombinationsArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikispecies Languages AfrikaansالعربيةАварAzərbaycancaБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиBrezhonegCatalàCebuanoČeštinaChiTumbukaDanskDeutschDinébizaadEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFøroysktFrançaisFryskGalego한국어HrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaInterlinguaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתKotavaLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschЛезгиLietuviųLimburgsLingálaMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംمصرىNederlands日本語NordfriiskNorskbokmålOccitanپښتوPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRumantschРусскийScotsShqipSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaŚlůnskiСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệtWinaray吴语粵語Zazaki中文 Editlinks