Lighting - Wikipedia

Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light ... Lighting FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Deliberateuseoflighttoachievepracticaloraestheticeffects NottobeconfusedwithLightning. "Artificiallight"redirectshere.Forthesong,seeArtificialLight(song).Forsimulated3Dlighting,seeComputergraphicslighting. Illuminatedcherryblossoms,lightfromtheshopwindows,andJapaneselanternatnightinIse,Mie,Japan DaylightusedatthetrainstationGaredel'EstParis Low-intensitylightingandhazeinaconcerthallallowslasereffectstobevisible Lightingorilluminationisthedeliberateuseoflighttoachievepracticaloraestheticeffects.Lightingincludestheuseofbothartificiallightsourceslikelampsandlightfixtures,aswellasnaturalilluminationbycapturingdaylight.Daylighting(usingwindows,skylights,orlightshelves)issometimesusedasthemainsourceoflightduringdaytimeinbuildings.Thiscansaveenergyinplaceofusingartificiallighting,whichrepresentsamajorcomponentofenergyconsumptioninbuildings.Properlightingcanenhancetaskperformance,improvetheappearanceofanarea,orhavepositivepsychologicaleffectsonoccupants. Indoorlightingisusuallyaccomplishedusinglightfixtures,andisakeypartofinteriordesign.Lightingcanalsobeanintrinsiccomponentoflandscapeprojects. Contents 1History 2Fixtures 2.1Types 2.2Methods 2.3Formsoflighting 2.3.1Indoorlighting 2.3.2Outdoorlighting 3Vehicleuse 4Lamps 5Designandarchitecture 5.1Architecturallightingdesign 6Onstageandset 7Measurement 7.1Colorproperties 7.2Lightexposure 8Energyconsumption 8.1Lightingcontrolsystems 8.2Daylighting 8.3Solid-statelighting 9Healtheffects 10Environmentalissues 10.1Compactfluorescentlamps 10.2LEDlamps 10.3Lightpollution 11Professionalorganizations 11.1International 11.2National 12Seealso 12.1Inventors 12.2Lists 13References 14Sources 15Externallinks History[edit] Withthediscoveryoffire,theearliestformofartificiallightingusedtoilluminateanareawerecampfiresortorches.Asearlyas400,000yearsago,firewaskindledinthecavesofPekingMan.Prehistoricpeopleusedprimitiveoillampstoilluminatesurroundings.Theselampsweremadefromnaturallyoccurringmaterialssuchasrocks,shells,hornsandstones,werefilledwithgrease,andhadafiberwick.Lampstypicallyusedanimalorvegetablefatsasfuel.Hundredsoftheselamps(hollowworkedstones)havebeenfoundintheLascauxcavesinmodern-dayFrance,datingtoabout15,000yearsago.Oilyanimals(birdsandfish)werealsousedaslampsafterbeingthreadedwithawick.Fireflieshavebeenusedaslightingsources.[citationneeded]Candlesandglassandpotterylampswerealsoinvented.[1]Chandelierswereanearlyformof"lightfixture". Amajorreductioninthecostoflightingoccurredwiththediscoveryofwhaleoil.[2]TheuseofwhaleoildeclinedafterAbrahamGesner,aCanadiangeologist,firstrefinedkeroseneinthe1840s,allowingbrighterlighttobeproducedatsubstantiallylowercost.[3]Inthe1850s,thepriceofwhaleoildramaticallyincreased(morethandoublingfrom1848to1856)duetoshortagesofavailablewhales,hasteningwhaleoil'sdecline.[3]By1860,therewere33keroseneplantsintheUnitedStates,andAmericansspentmoreongasandkerosenethanonwhaleoil.[3]Thefinaldeathknellforwhaleoilwasin1859,whencrudeoilwasdiscoveredandthepetroleumindustryarose.[3] DimnightlightingfortheoldwarehousesalongtheriverintheoldtownofPorvoo,Finland Gaslightingwaseconomicalenoughtopowerstreetlightsinmajorcitiesstartingintheearly1800s,andwasalsousedinsomecommercialbuildingsandinthehomesofwealthypeople.Thegasmantleboostedtheluminosityofutilitylightingandofkerosenelanterns.Thenextmajordropinpricecameaboutinthe1880swiththeintroductionofelectriclightingintheformofarclightsforlargespaceandstreetlighting,followedbyincandescentlightbulb-basedutilitiesforindoorandoutdoorlighting.[2][4] Overtime,electriclightingbecameubiquitousindevelopedcountries.[5]Segmentedsleeppatternsdisappeared,improvednighttimelightingmademoreactivitiespossibleatnight,andmorestreetlightsreducedurbancrime.[6][7][8] Fixtures[edit] Mainarticle:Lightfixture Lightingfixturescomeinawidevarietyofstylesforvariousfunctions.Themostimportantfunctionsareasaholderforthelightsource,toprovidedirectedlightandtoavoidvisualglare.[9]Someareveryplainandfunctional,whilesomearepiecesofartinthemselves.Nearlyanymaterialcanbeused,solongasitcantoleratetheexcessheatandisinkeepingwithsafetycodes. Animportantpropertyoflightfixturesistheluminousefficacyorwall-plugefficiency,meaningtheamountofusablelightemanatingfromthefixtureperusedenergy,usuallymeasuredinlumenperwatt.Afixtureusingreplaceablelightsourcescanalsohaveitsefficiencyquotedasthepercentageoflightpassedfromthe"bulb"tothesurroundings.Themoretransparentthelightingfixturesare,thehigherefficacy.Shadingthelightwillnormallydecreaseefficacybutincreasethedirectionalityandthevisualcomfortprobability. Colortemperatureforwhitelightsourcesalsoaffectstheiruseforcertainapplications.Thecolortemperatureofawhitelightsourceisthetemperatureinkelvinsofatheoreticalblackbodyemitterthatmostcloselymatchesthespectralcharacteristicsofthelamp.Anincandescentbulbhasacolortemperaturearound2800to3000kelvins;daylightisaround6400kelvins.Lowercolortemperaturelampshaverelativelymoreenergyintheyellowandredpartofthevisiblespectrum,whilehighcolortemperaturescorrespondtolampswithmoreofablue-whiteappearance.Forcriticalinspectionorcolormatchingtasks,orforretaildisplaysoffoodandclothing,thecolortemperatureofthelampswillbeselectedforthebestoveralllightingeffect. Types[edit] Seealso:Listoftypesoflighting Ademonstrationoftheeffectsofdifferentkindsoflighting Lightingisclassifiedbyintendeduseasgeneral,accent,ortasklighting,dependinglargelyonthedistributionofthelightproducedbythefixture. Tasklightingismainlyfunctionalandisusuallythemostconcentrated,forpurposessuchasreadingorinspectionofmaterials.Forexample,readingpoor-qualityreproductionsmayrequiretasklightinglevelsupto1500lux(150footcandles),andsomeinspectiontasksorsurgicalproceduresrequireevenhigherlevels. Accentlightingismainlydecorative,intendedtohighlightpictures,plants,orotherelementsofinteriordesignorlandscaping. Generallighting(sometimesreferredtoasambientlight)fillsinbetweenthetwoandisintendedforgeneralilluminationofanarea.Indoors,thiswouldbeabasiclamponatableorfloor,orafixtureontheceiling.Outdoors,generallightingforaparkinglotmaybeaslowas10-20lux(1-2footcandles)sincepedestriansandmotoristsalreadyusedtothedarkwillneedlittlelightforcrossingthearea. Methods[edit] Downlightingismostcommon,withfixturesonorrecessedintheceilingcastinglightdownward.Thistendstobethemostusedmethod,usedinbothofficesandhomes.Althoughitiseasytodesign,ithasdramaticproblemswithglareandexcessenergyconsumptionduetolargenumberoffittings.[10]TheintroductionofLEDlightinghasgreatlyimprovedthisbyapprox.90%whencomparedtoahalogendownlightorspotlight.LEDlampsorbulbsarenowavailabletoretrofitinplaceofhighenergyconsumptionlamps. Uplightingislesscommon,oftenusedtobounceindirectlightofftheceilingandbackdown.Itiscommonlyusedinlightingapplicationsthatrequireminimalglareanduniformgeneralilluminancelevels.Uplighting(indirect)usesadiffusesurfacetoreflectlightinaspaceandcanminimizedisablingglareoncomputerdisplaysandotherdarkglossysurfaces.Itgivesamoreuniformpresentationofthelightoutputinoperation.Howeverindirectlightingiscompletelyreliantuponthereflectancevalueofthesurface.Whileindirectlightingcancreateadiffusedandshadowfreelighteffectitcanberegardedasanuneconomicallightingprinciple.[11][12] Frontlightingisalsoquitecommon,buttendstomakethesubjectlookflatasitscastsalmostnovisibleshadows.Lightingfromthesideisthelesscommon,asittendstoproduceglareneareyelevel. Backlightingeitheraroundorthroughanobjectismainlyforaccent.Backlightingisusedtoilluminateabackgroundorbackdrop.Thisaddsdepthtoanimageorscene.Othersuseittoachieveamoredramaticeffect. Wall-mountedlightwithshadows Formsoflighting[edit] Indoorlighting[edit] Formsoflightingincludealcovelighting,whichlikemostotheruplightingisindirect.Thisisoftendonewithfluorescentlighting(firstavailableatthe1939World'sFair)orropelight,occasionallywithneonlighting,andrecentlywithLEDstriplighting.Itisaformofbacklighting. Soffitorclosetowalllightingcanbegeneraloradecorativewall-wash,sometimesusedtobringouttexture(likestuccoorplaster)onawall,thoughthismayalsoshowitsdefectsaswell.Theeffectdependsheavilyontheexacttypeoflightingsourceused. Recessedlighting(oftencalled"potlights"inCanada,"canlights"or'highhats"intheUS)ispopular,withfixturesmountedintotheceilingstructuresoastoappearflushwithit.Thesedownlightscanusenarrowbeamspotlights,orwider-anglefloodlights,bothofwhicharebulbshavingtheirownreflectors.Therearealsodownlightswithinternalreflectorsdesignedtoacceptcommon'A'lamps(lightbulbs)whicharegenerallylesscostlythanreflectorlamps.Downlightscanbeincandescent,fluorescent,HID(highintensitydischarge)orLED. Tracklighting,inventedbyLightolier,[13]waspopularatoneperiodoftimebecauseitwasmucheasiertoinstallthanrecessedlighting,andindividualfixturesaredecorativeandcanbeeasilyaimedatawall.Ithasregainedsomepopularityrecentlyinlow-voltagetracks,whichoftenlooknothingliketheirpredecessorsbecausetheydonothavethesafetyissuesthatline-voltagesystemshave,andarethereforelessbulkyandmoreornamentalinthemselves.Amastertransformerfeedsallofthefixturesonthetrackorrodwith12or24volts,insteadofeachlightfixturehavingitsownline-to-lowvoltagetransformer.Therearetraditionalspotsandfloods,aswellasothersmallhangingfixtures.Amodifiedversionofthisiscablelighting,wherelightsarehungfromorclippedtobaremetalcablesundertension. Asconceisawall-mountedfixture,particularlyonethatshinesupandsometimesdownaswell.Atorchèreisanuplightintendedforambientlighting.Itistypicallyafloorlampbutmaybewall-mountedlikeasconce.Furtherinteriorlightfixturesincludechandeliers,pendantlights,ceilingfanswithlights,close-to-ceilingorflushlights,andvarioustypesoflamps[14] Theportableortablelampisprobablythemostcommonfixture,foundinmanyhomesandoffices.Thestandardlampandshadethatsitsonatableisgenerallighting,whilethedesklampisconsideredtasklighting.Magnifierlampsarealsotasklighting. AnimatedfountaininMoscow'sSquareofEurope,litatnight Theilluminatedceilingwasoncepopularinthe1960sand1970sbutfelloutoffavorafterthe1980s.Thisusesdiffuserpanelshunglikeasuspendedceilingbelowfluorescentlights,andisconsideredgenerallighting.Otherformsincludeneon,whichisnotusuallyintendedtoilluminateanythingelse,buttoactuallybeanartworkinitself.Thiswouldprobablyfallunderaccentlighting,thoughinadarknightclubitcouldbeconsideredgenerallighting. Inamovietheater,stepsintheaislesareusuallymarkedwitharowofsmalllightsforconvenienceandsafety,whenthefilmhasstartedandtheotherlightsareoff.Traditionallymadeupofsmalllowwattage,low-voltagelampsinatrackortranslucenttube,thesearerapidlybeingreplacedwithLEDbasedversions. Outdoorlighting[edit] HighmastlightingalongHighway401inOntario,Canada StreetLightsareusedtolightroadwaysandwalkwaysatnight.SomemanufacturersaredesigningLEDandphotovoltaicluminairestoprovideanenergy-efficientalternativetotraditionalstreetlightfixtures.[15][16][17] Floodlightsareusedtoilluminateoutdoorplayingfieldsorworkzonesduringnighttime. Floodlightscanbeusedtoilluminateworkzones[18]oroutdoorplayingfieldsduringnighttimehours.[19][20]Themostcommontypeoffloodlightsaremetalhalideandhighpressuresodiumlights. Beaconlightsarepositionedattheintersectionoftworoadstoaidinnavigation. Sometimessecuritylightingcanbeusedalongroadwaysinurbanareas,orbehindhomesorcommercialfacilities.Theseareextremelybrightlightsusedtodetercrime.SecuritylightsmayincludefloodlightsandbeactivatedwithPIRswitchesthatdetectmovingheatsourcesindarkness. Entrylightscanbeusedoutsidetoilluminateandsignaltheentrancetoaproperty.[21]Theselightsareinstalledforsafety,security,andfordecoration. ThedecksandgangwayoftugboatSamueldeChamplainilluminatedatnightwhiledockedatashipyardforthepurposesofsafetyandsecurity. Underwateraccentlightingisalsousedforkoiponds,fountains,swimmingpoolsandthelike. Neonsignsaremostoftenusedtoattractattentionratherthantoilluminate. Vehicleuse[edit] Mainarticle:Automotivelighting Vehiclestypicallyincludeheadlampsandtaillights.Headlampsarewhiteorselectiveyellowlightsplacedinthefrontofthevehicle,designedtoilluminatetheupcomingroadandtomakethevehiclemorevisible.ManymanufacturesareturningtoLEDheadlightsasanenergy-efficientalternativetotraditionalheadlamps.[22]Tailandbrakelightsareredandemitlighttotherearsoastorevealthevehicle'sdirectionoftraveltofollowingdrivers.Whiterear-facingreversinglampsindicatethatthevehicle'stransmissionhasbeenplacedinthereversegear,warninganyonebehindthevehiclethatitismovingbackwards,orabouttodoso.Flashingturnsignalsonthefront,side,andrearofthevehicleindicateanintendedchangeofpositionordirection.Inthelate1950s,someautomakersbegantouseelectroluminescenttechnologytobacklighttheircars'speedometersandothergaugesortodrawattentiontologosorotherdecorativeelements. Lamps[edit] Mainarticle:Lamp(electricalcomponent) Commonlycalled'lightbulbs',lampsaretheremovableandreplaceablepartofalightfixture,whichconvertselectricalenergyintoelectromagneticradiation.Whilelampshavetraditionallybeenratedandmarketedprimarilyintermsoftheirpowerconsumption,expressedinwatts,proliferationoflightingtechnologybeyondtheincandescentlightbulbhaseliminatedthecorrespondenceofwattagetotheamountoflightproduced.Forexample,a60 Wincandescentlightbulbproducesaboutthesameamountoflightasa13 Wcompactfluorescentlamp.Eachofthesetechnologieshasadifferentefficacyinconvertingelectricalenergytovisiblelight.Visiblelightoutputistypicallymeasuredinlumens.Thisunitonlyquantifiesthevisibleradiation,andexcludesinvisibleinfraredandultravioletlight.Awaxcandleproducesonthecloseorderof13lumens,a60wattincandescentlampmakesaround700lumens,anda15-wattcompactfluorescentlampproducesabout800lumens,butactualoutputvariesbyspecificdesign.[23]Ratingandmarketingemphasisisshiftingawayfromwattageandtowardslumenoutput,togivethepurchaseradirectlyapplicablebasisuponwhichtoselectalamp. Lamptypesinclude: Ballast:Aballastisanauxiliarypieceofequipmentdesignedtostartandproperlycontroltheflowofpowertodischargelightsourcessuchasfluorescentandhighintensitydischarge(HID)lamps.Somelampsrequiretheballasttohavethermalprotection. fluorescentlight:Atubecoatedwithphosphorcontaininglowpressuremercuryvaporthatproduceswhitelight. Halogen:Incandescentlampscontaininghalogengasessuchasiodineorbromine,increasingtheefficacyofthelampversusaplainincandescentlamp. Neon:Alowpressuregascontainedwithinaglasstube;thecoloremitteddependsonthegas. Light-emittingdiodes:Light-emittingdiodes(LED)aresolidstatedevicesthatemitlightbydintofthemovementofelectronsinasemiconductormaterial.[24] Compactfluorescentlamps:CFLsaredesignedtoreplaceincandescentlampsinexistingandnewinstallations.[25][26] Designandarchitecture[edit] Architecturallightingdesign[edit] Mainarticle:Architecturallightingdesign Lightingwithoutwindows:ThePantheoninthe18thcentury,paintedbyGiovanniPaoloPanini.[27] Lightingdesignasitappliestothebuiltenvironmentisknownas'architecturallightingdesign'.Lightingofstructuresconsidersaestheticelementsaswellaspracticalconsiderationsofquantityoflightrequired,occupantsofthestructure,energyefficiency,andcost.Artificiallightingtakesintoaccounttheamountofdaylightreceivedinaspacebyusingdaylightfactorcalculations.Forsimpleinstallations,handcalculationsbasedontabulardataareusedtoprovideanacceptablelightingdesign.MorecriticalorcomplexdesignsnowroutinelyusecomputersoftwaresuchasRadianceformathematicalmodeling,whichcanallowanarchitecttoquicklyevaluatethebenefitofaproposeddesign. Insomeinstances,thematerialsusedonwallsandfurnitureplayakeyroleinthelightingeffect.Forexample,darkpainttendstoabsorblight,makingtheroomappearsmallerandmoredimthanitis,whereaslightpaintdoestheopposite.Otherreflectivesurfacesalsohaveaneffectonlightingdesign.[12][28] Onstageandset[edit] Mainarticle:Stagelighting Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(February2012)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Lightingandshadows Movingheadsinaphotostudioset Illuminatingasubjectfrombeneathcancreateaheighteneddramaticeffect. Lightingilluminatestheperformersandartistsinalivetheatre,dance,ormusicalperformance,andisselectedandarrangedtocreatedramaticeffects.Stagelightingusesgeneralilluminationtechnologyindevicesconfiguredforeasyadjustmentoftheiroutputcharacteristics.[citationneeded]Thesetupofstagelightingistailoredforeachsceneofeachproduction.Dimmers,coloredfilters,reflectors,lenses,motorizedormanuallyaimedlamps,anddifferentkindsoffloodandspotlightsareamongthetoolsusedbyastagelightingdesignertoproducethedesiredeffects.Asetoflightingcuesarepreparedsothatthelightingoperatorcancontrolthelightsinstepwiththeperformance;complextheatrelightingsystemsusecomputercontroloflightinginstruments. Motionpictureandtelevisionproductionusemanyofthesametoolsandmethodsofstagelighting.Especiallyintheearlydaysoftheseindustries,veryhighlightlevelswererequiredandheatproducedbylightingequipmentpresentedsubstantialchallenges.Moderncamerasrequirelesslight,andmodernlightsourcesemitlessheat. Measurement[edit] Mainarticle:Photometry(optics) Measurementoflightorphotometryisgenerallyconcernedwiththeamountofusefullightfallingonasurfaceandtheamountoflightemergingfromalamporothersource,alongwiththecolorsthatcanberenderedbythislight.Thehumaneyerespondsdifferentlytolightfromdifferentpartsofthevisiblespectrum,thereforephotometricmeasurementsmusttaketheluminosityfunctionintoaccountwhenmeasuringtheamountofusefullight.ThebasicSIunitofmeasurementisthecandela(cd),whichdescribestheluminousintensity,allotherphotometricunitsarederivedfromthecandela.Luminanceforinstanceisameasureofthedensityofluminousintensityinagivendirection.Itdescribestheamountoflightthatpassesthroughorisemittedfromaparticulararea,andfallswithinagivensolidangle.TheSIunitforluminanceiscandelapersquaremetre(cd/m2).TheCGSunitofluminanceisthestilb,whichisequaltoonecandelapersquarecentimetreor10 kcd/m2.Theamountofusefullightemittedfromasourceortheluminousfluxismeasuredinlumen(lm). TheSIunitofilluminanceandluminousemittance,beingtheluminouspowerperarea,ismeasuredinLux.Itisusedinphotometryasameasureoftheintensity,asperceivedbythehumaneye,oflightthathitsorpassesthroughasurface.Itisanalogoustotheradiometricunitwattspersquaremetre,butwiththepowerateachwavelengthweightedaccordingtotheluminosityfunction,astandardizedmodelofhumanvisualbrightnessperception.InEnglish,"lux"isusedinbothsingularandplural.[29] Visualcomfortoftenentailsthemeasurementofsubjectiveevaluations.[30]Severalmeasurementmethodshavebeendevelopedtocontrolglareresultingfromindoorlightingdesign.TheUnifiedGlareRating(UGR),theVisualComfortProbability,andtheDaylightGlareIndexaresomeofthemostwell-knownmethodsofmeasurement.Inadditiontothesenewmethods,fourmainfactorsinfluencethedegreeofdiscomfortglare;theluminanceoftheglaresource,thesolidangleoftheglaresource,thebackgroundluminance,andthepositionoftheglaresourceinthefieldofviewmustallbetakenintoaccount.[11][31] Colorproperties[edit] TheLeppävaaranTornibuildinginLeppävaara,Espoo,Finland,illuminatedwithcolourfullightsin2017 Todefinelightsourcecolorproperties,thelightingindustrypredominantlyreliesontwometrics,correlatedcolortemperature(CCT),commonlyusedasanindicationoftheapparent"warmth"or"coolness"ofthelightemittedbyasource,andcolorrenderingindex(CRI),anindicationofthelightsource'sabilitytomakeobjectsappearnatural. However,thesetwometrics,developedinthelastcentury,arefacingincreasedchallengesandcriticismsasnewtypesoflightsources,particularlylight-emittingdiodes(LEDs),becomemoreprevalentinthemarket. Forexample,inordertomeettheexpectationsforgoodcolorrenderinginretailapplications,research[32]suggestsusingthewell-establishedCRIalongwithanothermetriccalledgamutareaindex(GAI).GAIrepresentstherelativeseparationofobjectcolorsilluminatedbyalightsource;thegreatertheGAI,thegreatertheapparentsaturationorvividnessoftheobjectcolors.Asaresult,lightsourceswhichbalancebothCRIandGAIaregenerallypreferredoveronesthathaveonlyhighCRIoronlyhighGAI.[33] Lightexposure[edit] TypicalmeasurementsoflighthaveusedaDosimeter.Dosimetersmeasureanindividual'soranobject'sexposuretosomethingintheenvironment,suchaslightdosimetersandultravioletdosimeters. Inordertospecificallymeasuretheamountoflightenteringtheeye,personalcircadianlightmetercalledtheDaysimeterhasbeendeveloped.[34]Thisisthefirstdevicecreatedtoaccuratelymeasureandcharacterizelight(intensity,spectrum,timing,andduration)enteringtheeyethataffectsthehumanbody'sclock. Thesmall,head-mounteddevicemeasuresanindividual'sdailyrestandactivitypatterns,aswellasexposuretoshort-wavelengthlightthatstimulatesthecircadiansystem.Thedevicemeasuresactivityandlighttogetheratregulartimeintervalsandelectronicallystoresandlogsitsoperatingtemperature.TheDaysimetercangatherdataforupto30daysforanalysis.[35] Energyconsumption[edit] Severalstrategiesareavailabletominimizeenergyrequirementsforlightingabuilding: Specificationofilluminationrequirementsforeachgivenusearea Analysisoflightingqualitytoensurethatadversecomponentsoflighting(forexample,glareorincorrectcolorspectrum)arenotbiasingthedesign Integrationofspaceplanningandinteriorarchitecture(includingchoiceofinteriorsurfacesandroomgeometries)tolightingdesign Designoftimeofdayusethatdoesnotexpendunnecessaryenergy Selectionoffixturesandlampsthatreflectbestavailabletechnologyforenergyconservation Trainingofbuildingoccupantstouselightingequipmentinmostefficientmanner Maintenanceoflightingsystemstominimizeenergywastage Useofnaturallight Somebigboxstoreswerebeingbuiltfrom2006onwithnumerousplasticbubbleskylights,inmanycasescompletelyobviatingtheneedforinteriorartificiallightingformanyhoursoftheday. Incountrieswhereindoorlightingofsimpledwellingsisasignificantcost,"Moserlamps",plasticwater-filledtransparentdrinkbottlesfittedthroughtheroof,providetheequivalentofa40-to60-wattincandescentbulbeachduringdaylight.[36] Loadsheddingcanhelpreducethepowerrequestedbyindividualstothemainpowersupply.Loadsheddingcanbedoneonanindividuallevel,atabuildinglevel,orevenataregionallevel. Specificationofilluminationrequirementsisthebasicconceptofdecidinghowmuchilluminationisrequiredforagiventask.Clearly,muchlesslightisrequiredtoilluminateahallwaycomparedtothatneededforawordprocessingworkstation.Generallyspeaking,theenergyexpendedisproportionaltothedesignilluminationlevel.Forexample,alightinglevelof400luxmightbechosenforaworkenvironmentinvolvingmeetingroomsandconferences,whereasalevelof80luxcouldbeselectedforbuildinghallways.[37][38][39][40][41]Ifthehallwaystandardsimplyemulatestheconferenceroomneeds,thenmuchmoreenergywillbeconsumedthanisneeded. Lightingcontrolsystems[edit] Mainarticle:Lightingcontrolsystem Lightingcontrolsystemsreduceenergyusageandcostbyhelpingtoprovidelightonlywhenandwhereitisneeded.Lightingcontrolsystemstypicallyincorporatetheuseoftimeschedules,occupancycontrol,andphotocellcontrol(i.e.daylightharvesting).Somesystemsalsosupportdemandresponseandwillautomaticallydimorturnofflightstotakeadvantageofutilityincentives.Lightingcontrolsystemsaresometimesincorporatedintolargerbuildingautomationsystems. Manynewercontrolsystemsareusingwirelessmeshopenstandards(suchasZigBee),[42]whichprovidesbenefitsincludingeasierinstallation(noneedtoruncontrolwires)andinteroperabilitywithotherstandards-basedbuildingcontrolsystems(e.g.security).[43] Inresponsetodaylightingtechnology,daylightharvestingsystemshavebeendevelopedtofurtherreduceenergyconsumption.Thesetechnologiesarehelpful,buttheydohavetheirdownfalls.Manytimes,rapidandfrequentswitchingofthelightsonandoffcanoccur,particularlyduringunstableweatherconditionsorwhendaylightlevelsarechangingaroundtheswitchingilluminance.Notonlydoesthisdisturboccupants,itcanalsoreducelamplife.Avariationofthistechnologyisthe'differentialswitchingordead-band'photoelectriccontrolwhichhasmultipleilluminancesitswitchesfromsoasnottodisturboccupantsasmuch.[10][44] Occupancysensorstoallowoperationforwheneversomeoneiswithintheareabeingscannedcancontrollighting.Whenmotioncannolongerbedetected,thelightsshutoff.Passiveinfraredsensorsreacttochangesinheat,suchasthepatterncreatedbyamovingperson.Thecontrolmusthaveanunobstructedviewofthebuildingareabeingscanned.Doors,partitions,stairways,etc.willblockmotiondetectionandreduceitseffectiveness.Thebestapplicationsforpassiveinfraredoccupancysensorsareopenspaceswithaclearviewoftheareabeingscanned.Ultrasonicsensorstransmitsoundabovetherangeofhumanhearingandmonitorthetimeittakesforthesoundwavestoreturn.Abreakinthepatterncausedbyanymotionintheareatriggersthecontrol.Ultrasonicsensorscanseearoundobstructionsandarebestforareaswithcabinetsandshelving,restrooms,andopenareasrequiring360-degreecoverage.Someoccupancysensorsutilizebothpassiveinfraredandultrasonictechnology,butareusuallymoreexpensive.Theycanbeusedtocontrolonelamp,onefixtureormanyfixtures.[45][46] Daylighting[edit] Mainarticle:Daylighting Daylightingistheoldestmethodofinteriorlighting.Daylightingissimplydesigningaspacetouseasmuchnaturallightaspossible.Thisdecreasesenergyconsumptionandcosts,andrequireslessheatingandcoolingfromthebuilding.Daylightinghasalsobeenproventohavepositiveeffectsonpatientsinhospitalsaswellasworkandschoolperformance.Duetoalackofinformationthatindicatethelikelyenergysavings,daylightingschemesarenotyetpopularamongmostbuildings.[10][47]Unlikeelectriclighting,thedistributionofdaylightvariesconsiderablythroughouttheentireyearinsideabuilding.[48] Solid-statelighting[edit] Mainarticle:Solid-statelighting Inrecentyearslight-emittingdiodes(LEDs)arebecomingincreasinglyefficientleadingtoanextraordinaryincreaseintheuseofsolidstatelighting.Inmanysituations,controllingthelightemissionofLEDsmaybedonemosteffectivelybyusingtheprinciplesofnonimagingoptics.[49] Healtheffects[edit] Mainarticles:Full-spectrumlight,Over-illumination,andLighteffectsoncircadianrhythm Itisvaluabletoprovidethecorrectlightintensityandcolorspectrumforeachtaskorenvironment.Otherwise,energynotonlycouldbewastedbutover-illuminationcanleadtoadversehealthandpsychologicaleffects. Beyondtheenergyfactorsbeingconsidered,itisimportantnottoover-designillumination,lestadversehealtheffectssuchasheadachefrequency,stress,andincreasedbloodpressurebeinducedbythehigherlightinglevels.Inaddition,glareorexcesslightcandecreaseworkerefficiency.[50] Analysisoflightingqualityparticularlyemphasizesuseofnaturallighting,butalsoconsidersspectralcontentifartificiallightistobeused.Notonlywillgreaterrelianceonnaturallightreduceenergyconsumption,butwillfavorablyimpacthumanhealthandperformance.Newstudieshaveshownthattheperformanceofstudentsisinfluencedbythetimeanddurationofdaylightintheirregularschedules.Designingschoolfacilitiestoincorporatetherighttypesoflightattherighttimeofdayfortherightdurationmayimprovestudentperformanceandwell-being.Similarly,designinglightingsystemsthatmaximizetherightamountoflightattheappropriatetimeofdayfortheelderlymayhelprelievesymptomsofAlzheimer'sdisease.Thehumancircadiansystemisentrainedtoa24-hourlight-darkpatternthatmimicstheearth'snaturallight/darkpattern.Whenthosepatternsaredisrupted,theydisruptthenaturalcircadiancycle.Circadiandisruptionmayleadtonumeroushealthproblemsincludingbreastcancer,seasonalaffectivedisorder,delayedsleepphasesyndrome,andotherailments.[51][52] Astudyconductedin1972and1981,documentedbyRobertUlrich,surveyed23surgicalpatientsassignedtoroomslookingoutonanaturalscene.Thestudyconcludedthatpatientsassignedtoroomswithwindowsallowingmuchnaturallighthadshorterpostoperativehospitalstays,receivedfewernegativeevaluativecommentsinnurses’notes,andtookfewerpotentanalgesicsthan23matchedpatientsinsimilarroomswithwindowsfacingabrickwall.Thisstudysuggeststhatduetothenatureofthesceneryanddaylightexposurewasindeedhealthierforpatientsasopposedtothoseexposedtolittlelightfromthebrickwall.Inadditiontoincreasedworkperformance,properusageofwindowsanddaylightingcrossestheboundariesbetweenpureaestheticsandoverallhealth.[47][53] AlisonJingXu,assistantprofessorofmanagementattheUniversityofTorontoScarboroughandAparnaLabrooofNorthwesternUniversityconductedaseriesofstudiesanalyzingthecorrelationbetweenlightingandhumanemotion.Theresearchersaskedparticipantstorateanumberofthingssuchas:thespicinessofchicken-wingsauce,theaggressivenessofafictionalcharacter,howattractivesomeonewas,theirfeelingsaboutspecificwords,andthetasteoftwojuices–allunderdifferentlightingconditions.Intheirstudy,theyfoundthatbothpositiveandnegativehumanemotionsarefeltmoreintenselyinbrightlight.ProfessorXustated,"wefoundthatonsunnydaysdepression-pronepeopleactuallybecomemoredepressed."Theyalsofoundthatdimlightmakespeoplemakemorerationaldecisionsandsettlenegotiationseasier.Inthedark,emotionsareslightlysuppressed.However,emotionsareintensifiedinthebrightlight.[54][55][56] Environmentalissues[edit] Compactfluorescentlamps[edit] Compactfluorescentlamps(CFLs)uselesspowerthananincandescentlamptosupplythesameamountoflight,howevertheycontainmercurywhichisadisposalhazard.Duetotheabilitytoreduceelectricityconsumption,manyorganizationsencouragedtheadoptionofCFLs.SomeelectricutilitiesandlocalgovernmentssubsidizedCFLsorprovidedthemfreetocustomersasameansofreducingelectricitydemand.Foragivenlightoutput,CFLsusebetweenonefifthandonequarterthepowerofanequivalentincandescentlamp.UnlikeincandescentlampsCFLsneedalittletimetowarmupandreachfullbrightness.NotallCFLsaresuitablefordimming.CFL’shavelargelybeenreplacedwithLEDtechnologies. LEDlamps[edit] LEDlampsprovidesignificantenergysavingsoverincandescentandfluorescentlamps.[57]AccordingtotheEnergySavingTrust,LEDlampsuseonly10%powercomparedtoastandardincandescentbulb,wherecompactfluorescentlampsuse20%andenergysavinghalogenlamps70%.Thelifetimeisalsomuchlonger —upto50,000hours.Thedownsidewhentheywerefirstpopularizedwastheinitialcost.By2018,productioncostsdropped,performanceincreased,andenergyconsumptionwasreduced.WhiletheinitiallycostofLEDsisstillhigherthenincandescentlamps,thesavingsaresodramaticthatthereareveryfewinstancesthatLEDsaren’tthemosteconomicalchoice. Scatteredlightfromoutdoorilluminationmayhaveeffectsontheenvironmentandhumanhealth.[58]Forinstance,onestudyconductedbytheAmericanMedicalAssociation[59]warnedontheuseofhighbluecontentwhiteLEDsinstreetlighting,duetotheirhigherimpactonhumanhealthandenvironment,comparedtolowbluecontentlightsources(e.g.HighPressureSodium,PCamberLEDs,andlowCCTLEDs). Whilethatdatamayhavebeensuspectevenpriortopublication[citationneeded],there’snoquestionthatthesolidstatetechnologythatareLEDs,hasevolvedsubstantiallysincethenandwenolongerusethelampsthatwereavailableforstudyatthattime. Lightpollution[edit] Mainarticle:Lightpollution Lightpollutionisagrowingprobleminreactiontoexcesslightbeinggivenoffbynumeroussigns,houses,andbuildings.Pollutinglightisoftenwastedlightinvolvingunnecessaryenergycostsandcarbondioxideemissions.Lightpollutionisdescribedasartificiallightthatisexcessiveorintrudeswhereitisnotwanted.Well-designedlightingsendslightonlywhereitisneededwithoutscatteringitelsewhere.Poorlydesignedlightingcanalsocompromisesafety.Forexample,glarecreatessafetyissuesaroundbuildingsbycausingverysharpshadows,temporarilyblindingpassersbymakingthemvulnerabletowould-beassailants.[60][61]Thenegativeecologicaleffectsofartificiallighthavebeenincreasinglywelldocumented.[62][63]TheWorldHealthOrganizationin2007[64]issuedareportthatnotedtheeffectsofbrightlightonfloraandfauna,seaturtlehatchlings,frogsduringmatingseasonandthemigratorypatternsofbirds.TheAmericanMedicalAssociationin2012[65]issuedawarningthatextendedexposuretolightatnightincreasestheriskofsomecancers.[58]TwostudiesinIsraelfrom2008haveyieldedsomeadditionalfindingsaboutapossiblecorrelationbetweenartificiallightatnightandcertaincancers.[66] Professionalorganizations[edit] International[edit] TheInternationalCommissiononIllumination(CIE)isaninternationalauthorityandstandarddefiningorganizationoncolorandlighting.PublishingwidelyusedstandardmetricssuchasvariousCIEcolorspacesandthecolorrenderingindex. TheIlluminatingEngineeringSociety(IES),inconjunctionwithorganizationslikeANSIandASHRAE,publishesguidelines,standards,andhandbooksthatallowcategorizationoftheilluminationneedsofdifferentbuiltenvironments.Manufacturersoflightingequipmentpublishphotometricdatafortheirproducts,whichdefinesthedistributionoflightreleasedbyaspecificluminaire.ThisdataistypicallyexpressedinstandardizedformdefinedbytheIESNA. TheInternationalAssociationofLightingDesigners(IALD)isanorganizationwhichfocusesontheadvancementoflightingdesigneducationandtherecognitionofindependentprofessionallightingdesigners.ThosefullyindependentdesignerswhomeettherequirementsforprofessionalmembershipintheassociationtypicallyappendtheabbreviationIALDtotheirname. TheProfessionalLightingDesignersAssociation(PLDA),formerlyknownasELDAisanorganisationfocusingonthepromotionoftheprofessionofArchitecturalLightingDesign.Theypublishamonthlynewsletterandorganisedifferenteventsthroughouttheworld. TheNationalCouncilonQualificationsfortheLightingProfessions(NCQLP)offerstheLightingCertificationExaminationwhichtestsrudimentarylightingdesignprinciples.Individualswhopassthisexambecome"LightingCertified"andmayappendtheabbreviationLCtotheirname.Thiscertificationprocessisoneofthreenational(U.S.)examinations(theothersareCLEPandCLMC)inthelightingindustryandisopennotonlytodesigners,buttolightingequipmentmanufacturers,electricutilityemployees,etc. TheProfessionalLightingAndSoundAssociation(PLASA)isaUK-basedtradeorganisationrepresentingthe500+individualandcorporatemembersdrawnfromthetechnicalservicessector.Itsmembersincludemanufacturersanddistributorsofstageandentertainmentlighting,sound,riggingandsimilarproductsandservices,andaffiliatedprofessionalsinthearea.Theylobbyforandrepresenttheinterestsoftheindustryatvariouslevels,interactingwithgovernmentandregulatingbodiesandpresentingthecasefortheentertainmentindustry.Examplesubjectsofthisrepresentationincludetheongoingreviewofradiofrequencies(whichmayormaynotaffecttheradiobandsinwhichwirelessmicrophonesandotherdevicesuse)andengagingwiththeissuessurroundingtheintroductionoftheRoHS(RestrictionofHazardousSubstancesDirective)regulations. National[edit] AssociationdeConcepteursEclairage(ACE)inFrance AmericanLightingAssociation(ALA)intheUnitedStates AssociazioneProfessionistidell'Illuminazione(APIL)inItaly HellenicIlluminationCommittee(HIC)inGreece IndianSocietyofLightingEngineers(ISLE) InstitutionofLightingEngineers(ILE)intheUnitedKingdom SchweizerischeLichtGesellschaft(SLG)inSwitzerland SocietyofLightandLighting(SLL),partoftheCharteredInstitutionofBuildingServicesEngineersintheUnitedKingdom.[67] UnitedScenicArtistsLocal829(USA829),membershipforlightingdesignersasacategory,withscenicdesigners,projectiondesigners,costumedesigners,andsounddesigners,intheUnitedStates Seealso[edit] 3Dcomputergraphics Anglepoiselamp,successfulandinnovativedesklampdesign Automotivelighting Banningofincandescentlightbulbs Bugzapper Candlepower Computergraphicslighting Fishinglightattractor,underwaterlightstoattractfish Homeautomation Lightfixture Lightinschoolbuildings Lightpollution Lightingcontrolsystems,forabuildingsorresidences Lightingfortheelderly ListofLightingDesignSoftware Luminousefficacy Neonlighting(forsignage) Over-illumination Seasonalaffectivedisorder Sustainablelighting Three-pointlighting,techniqueusedinbothstillphotographyandinfilm Inventors[edit] JosephSwan,carbonized-threadfilamentincandescentlamp AlexanderNikolayevichLodygin,carbon-rodfilamentincandescentlamp ThomasEdison,long-lastingincandescentlampwithhigh-resistancefilament JohnRichardsonWigham,lighthouseengineer Lists[edit] Listofenvironmentalhealthhazards Listoflightsources Timelineoflightingtechnology References[edit] ^Williams,Ben(1999)."AHistoryofLightandLighting".Archivedfromtheoriginalon25January2013.Retrieved23November2012. ^ab"TheHistoryofLight".PlanetMoney.Episode534.NPR.April25,2014.RetrievedJune20,2016. ^abcdEricJayDolin(2007).Leviathan:TheHistoryofWhalinginAmerica.W.W.Norton&Co.pp. 339–40. ^TheFirstFormofElectricLightHistoryoftheCarbonArcLamp(1800-1980s)'.EdisonTechCenter,edisontechcenter.org 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LightingResearchCenteratRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute LightingResearchattheUniversityofSheffield LightingResearchandTechnology;aninternationalpeeredreviewedjournal "SocietyofLightandLighting".cibse.org.CharteredInstitutionofBuildingServicesEngineers. vteLightingConcepts Accentlighting Colortemperature Efficiency Glare Lamp Lightfixture Lightpollution Lightbulbsocket Edisonscrew Bi-pinlampbase Lampcapsandholders Tasklighting MethodsofgenerationIncandescent Regular Halogen Nernst Luminescent Fluorescent Fluorescentlamp (compact) Fluorescentinduction Photoluminescent laserlamp Chemiluminescent Solid-state LEDbulb Cathodoluminescent Electron-stimulated Electroluminescent field-inducedpolymer Combustion Acetylene/Carbide Argand Campfire Candle Carcel Diya Flare Gas Kerosene Lantern Limelight Oil Rushlight Safety Tilley Torch Electricarc Carbonarc Klieglight Yablochkovcandle Gasdischarge Deuteriumarc Neon Plasma Sulfur Xenonarc Xenonflash High-intensitydischarge(HID) Mercury-vapor Metal-halide ceramic Hydrargyrummedium-arciodide(HMI) Hydrargyrumquartziodide(HQI) Sodiumvapor Stationary Reflector Parabolicaluminizedreflector(PAR) Multifacetedreflector Ellipsoidalreflector Aircraftwarning Balanced-armlamp Chandelier Emergencylight Gaslighting Goosenecklamp Intelligentstreetlighting Lighttube Nightlight Neonlighting Pendantlight Recessedlight Sconce Streetlight Torchère Tracklighting Troffer Mobile Flashlight tactical Glowstick Headlamp (outdoor) Lantern Laserpointer Navigationlight Searchlight Solarlamp TheatricalCinematic Floodlight Footlight Gobo Scoop Spotlight ellipsoidalreflector Stagelightinginstrument DisplayDecorative Aromalamp Blacklight Bubblelight Christmaslights Crackletube DJlighting Electroluminescentwire Lavalamp Marquee Plasmaglobe Strobelight IndustrialScientific Germicidal Growlight Infraredlamp Stroboscope Tanning Automotive Daytimerunninglamp Headlamp hidden high-intensitydischarge sealedbeam Rearpositionlamps Reversinglamps Safetyreflector 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