Clean Water Act - Wikipedia

Title VI - State Water Pollution Control Revolving Funds CleanWaterAct FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch 1972U.S.federallawregulatingwaterpollution FortheCleanWaterActofOntario,Canada,seeCleanWaterAct(Ontario). CleanWaterActOthershorttitlesFederalWaterPollutionControlActAmendmentsof1972LongtitleAnActtoamendtheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct.Acronyms(colloquial)CWAEnacted bythe92ndUnitedStatesCongressEffectiveOctober18,1972CitationsPubliclaw92-500StatutesatLarge86 Stat. 816CodificationActsamendedFederalWaterPollutionControlActTitlesamended33U.S.C.:NavigableWatersU.S.C.sectionscreated33 U.S.C. §§ 1251–1387U.S.C.sectionsamended33U.S.C.ch.23§ 1151LegislativehistoryIntroducedintheSenateasS. 2770byEdmundMuskie(D–ME)onOctober28,1971CommitteeconsiderationbySenatePublicWorksCommitteePassedtheSenateonNovember2,1971 (86-0)PassedtheHouseonMarch29,1972 (passed)ReportedbythejointconferencecommitteeonOctober4,1972;agreedtobytheHouseonOctober4,1972 (366-11)andbytheSenateonOctober4,1972 (74-0)VetoedbyPresidentRichardNixon[1]onOctober17,1972OverriddenbytheSenateonOctober17,1972 (52-12)OverriddenbytheHouseandbecamelawonOctober18,1972 (247-23)MajoramendmentsCleanWaterActof1977;WaterQualityActof1987UnitedStatesSupremeCourtcases EIduPontdeNemours&Co.v.Train,430U.S.112(1977) EPAv.Nat'lCrushedStoneAssn.,449U.S.64(1980) UnitedStatesv.RiversideBayview,474U.S.121(1985) SolidWasteAgencyofNorthernCookCountyv.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,531U.S.159(2001) SouthFloridaWaterManagementDistrictv.MiccosukeeTribe,541U.S.95(2004). S.D.WarrenCo.v.MaineBoardofEnvironmentalProtection,547U.S.370(2006) Rapanosv.UnitedStates,547U.S.715(2006) NationalAss'nofHomeBuildersv.DefendersofWildlife,551U.S.644(2007) EntergyCorp.v.RiverkeeperInc.,556U.S.208(2009) CoeurAlaska,Inc.v.SoutheastAlaskaConservationCouncil,557U.S.261(2009) Sackettv.EPA,566U.S.120(2012) LosAngelesCountyFloodControlDistrictv.NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil,Inc.,568U.S.78(2013) Deckerv.NorthwestEnvironmentalDefenseCenter,568U.S.597(2013) ArmyCorpsofEngineersv.HawkesCo.,No.15-290,578U.S.___(2016) NationalAssociationofManufacturersv.DepartmentofDefense,No.16-299,583U.S.___(2018) CountyofMauiv.HawaiiWildlifeFund,No.18-260,590U.S.___(2020) Sackettv.EPAII(pending) TheCleanWaterAct(CWA)istheprimaryfederallawintheUnitedStatesgoverningwaterpollution.Itsobjectiveistorestoreandmaintainthechemical,physical,andbiologicalintegrityofthenation'swaters;recognizingtheresponsibilitiesofthestatesinaddressingpollutionandprovidingassistancetostatestodoso,includingfundingforpubliclyownedtreatmentworksfortheimprovementofwastewatertreatment;andmaintainingtheintegrityofwetlands.[2] TheCleanWaterActwasoneoftheUnitedStates'firstandmostinfluentialmodernenvironmentallaws.ItslawsandregulationsareprimarilyadministeredbytheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)incoordinationwithstategovernments,thoughsomeofitsprovisions,suchasthoseinvolvingfillingordredging,areadministeredbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.Itsimplementingregulationsarecodifiedat40C.F.R.SubchaptersD,N,andO(Parts100-140,401-471,and501-503). Technically,thenameofthelawistheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct.[3]ThefirstFWPCAwasenactedin1948,buttookonitsmodernformwhencompletelyrewrittenin1972inanactentitledtheFederalWaterPollutionControlActAmendmentsof1972.[4][1]MajorchangeshavesubsequentlybeenintroducedviaamendatorylegislationincludingtheCleanWaterActof1977[5]andtheWaterQualityAct(WQA)of1987.[6] TheCleanWaterActdoesnotdirectlyaddressgroundwatercontamination.GroundwaterprotectionprovisionsareincludedintheSafeDrinkingWaterAct,ResourceConservationandRecoveryAct,andtheSuperfundact. Contents 1Background 1.1Healthimplicationsofwaterpollution 1.1.1Gastrointestinalillness 1.1.2Reproductiveproblems 1.1.3Neurologicaldisorders 2Watersprotected 3Pollutioncontrolstrategy 3.1Pointsources 3.1.1Technology-basedstandards 3.1.2Waterqualitystandards 3.1.2.1Designateduses 3.1.2.2Waterqualitycriteria 3.1.2.3Anti-degradationpolicy 3.1.2.4Generalpolicies 3.2Nonpointsources 3.3Financingofpollutioncontrols 3.3.1WaterInfrastructureFinanceandInnovationAct 4Majorstatutoryprovisions 4.1TitleI-ResearchandRelatedPrograms 4.2TitleII-GrantsforConstructionofTreatmentWorks 4.3TitleIII-Standardsandenforcement 4.3.1Dischargepermitsrequired 4.3.2Technology-BasedStandardsProgram 4.3.3WaterQualityStandardsProgram 4.3.4NationalWaterQualityInventory 4.3.5Enforcement 4.3.6Federalfacilities 4.3.7Thermalpollution 4.3.8NonpointSourceManagementProgram 4.3.9Militaryvessels 4.4TitleIV-Permitsandlicenses 4.4.1Statecertificationofcompliance 4.4.2NPDESpermitsforpointsources 4.4.3Dredgeandfillpermits 4.4.3.1Exemptions 4.4.3.2Importanceofno-jurisdictiondeterminations 4.4.3.3Recaptureofexemptions 4.4.4POTWBiosolidsManagementProgram 4.5TitleV-GeneralProvisions 4.5.1Citizensuits 4.5.2Employeeprotection 4.6TitleVI-StateWaterPollutionControlRevolvingFunds 5Recentdevelopments 5.1WatersoftheUnitedStates 6Earlierlegislation 7Caselaw 8Effects 9Seealso 10References 11Externallinks 11.1GeneralBackground Background[edit] Healthimplicationsofwaterpollution[edit] Contaminationofdrinkingwatersuppliescannotonlyoccurinthesourcewaterbutalsointhedistributionsystem.Sourcesofwatercontaminationincludenaturallyoccurringchemicalsandminerals(arsenic,radon,uranium),locallandusepractices(fertilizers,pesticides,concentratedfeedingoperations),manufacturingprocesses,andseweroverflowsorwastewaterreleases.Someexamplesofhealthimplicationsofwatercontaminationaregastrointestinalillness,reproductiveproblems,andneurologicaldisorders.Infants,youngchildren,pregnantwomen,theelderly,andpeoplewhoseimmunesystemsarecompromisedbecauseofAIDS,chemotherapy,ortransplantmedications,maybeespeciallysusceptibletoillnessfromsomecontaminants.[7] Gastrointestinalillness[edit] Gastrointestinaldisordersincludesuchconditionsasconstipation,irritablebowelsyndrome,hemorrhoids,analfissures,perianalabscesses,analfistulas,perianalinfections,diverticulardiseases,colitis,colonpolypsandcancer.[8]Ingeneral,childrenandtheelderlyareathighestriskforgastrointestinaldisease.InastudyinvestigatingtheassociationbetweendrinkingwaterqualityandgastrointestinalillnessintheelderlyofPhiladelphia,scientistsfoundwaterquality9to11daysbeforethevisitwasnegativelyassociatedwithhospitaladmissionsforgastrointestinalillness,withaninterquartilerangeincreaseinturbiditybeingassociatedwitha9%increase).Theassociationwasstrongerinthoseover75thaninthepopulationaged65–74.ThisexampleisasmallreflectionofresidentsoftheUnitedStatesremainatriskofwaterbornegastrointestinalillnessundercurrentwatertreatmentpractices.[9] Reproductiveproblems[edit] Reproductiveproblemsrefertoanyillnessofthereproductivesystem.NewresearchbyBrunelUniversityandtheUniversityofExeterstrengthenstherelationshipbetweenwaterpollutionandrisingmalefertilityproblems.Studyidentifiedagroupofchemicalsthatactasanti-androgensinpollutedwater,whichinhibitsthefunctionofthemalehormone,testosterone,reducingmalefertility.[10] Neurologicaldisorders[edit] Neurologicaldisordersarediseasesofthebrain,spineandthenervesthatconnectthem.Thenewstudyofmorethan700peopleinCalifornia'sCentralValleyfoundthatthosewholikelyconsumedcontaminatedprivatewellwaterhadahigherrateofParkinson's.Theriskwas90percenthigherforthosewhohadprivatewellsnearfieldssprayedwithwidelyusedinsecticides.Unlikewatersuppliesinlargecities,privatewellsaremostlyunregulatedandarenotmonitoredforcontaminants.Manyofthemexistatshallowdepthsoflessthan20yards,andsomeofthecropchemicalsusedtokillpestsandweedscanflowintogroundwater.Therefore,privatewellsarelikelytocontainpesticides,whichcanattackdevelopingbrains(womborinfancy),leadingtoneurologicaldiseaseslaterinlife.AstudyledbyUCLAepidemiologyprofessorBeateRitzsuggeststhat"peoplewithParkinson’sweremorelikelytohaveconsumedprivatewellwater,andhadconsumeditonaverage4.3yearslongerthanthosewhodidnothavethedisease."[11] Watersprotected[edit] Allwaterswitha"significantnexus"to"navigablewaters"arecoveredundertheCWA;however,thephrase"significantnexus"remainsopentojudicialinterpretationandconsiderablecontroversy.The1972statutefrequentlyusestheterm"navigablewaters"butalsodefinesthetermas"watersoftheUnitedStates,includingtheterritorialseas."[12]Someregulationsinterpretingthe1972lawhaveincludedwaterfeaturessuchasintermittentstreams,playalakes,prairiepotholes,sloughsandwetlandsas"watersoftheUnitedStates."In2006,inRapanosv.UnitedStates,apluralityoftheUSSupremeCourtheldthattheterm"watersoftheUnitedStates""includesonlythoserelativelypermanent,standingorcontinuouslyflowingbodiesofwater'forminggeographicfeatures'thataredescribedinordinaryparlanceas'streams[,]...oceans,rivers,[and]lakes.'"SinceRapanostheEPAandtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineershaveattemptedtodefineprotectedwatersinthecontextofRapanosthroughthe2015CleanWaterRulebutthishasbeenhighlycontroversial. Pollutioncontrolstrategy[edit] Commonpointsourcedischarges Pointsources[edit] TheCWAintroducedtheNationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES),apermitsystemforregulatingpointsourcesofpollution.[13]Pointsourcesinclude: industrialfacilities(includingmanufacturing,mining,shippingactivities,oilandgasextraction[14]andserviceindustries). municipalgovernments(particularlysewagetreatmentplants)andothergovernmentfacilities(suchasmilitarybases),and someagriculturalfacilities,suchasanimalfeedlots. PointsourcesmaynotdischargepollutantstosurfacewaterswithoutanNPDESpermit.ThesystemismanagedbyEPAinpartnershipwithstateenvironmentalagencies.EPAhasauthorized47statestoissuepermitsdirectlytothedischargingfacilities.TheCWAalsoallowstribestoissuepermits,butnotribeshavebeenauthorizedbyEPA.Intheremainingstatesandterritories,thepermitsareissuedbyanEPAregionaloffice.[15](SeeTitlesIIIandIV.) Inlegislationpriorto1972,Congresshadauthorizedstatestodevelopwaterqualitystandards,whichwouldlimitdischargesfromfacilitiesbasedonthecharacteristicsofindividualwaterbodies.However,thosestandardsweretobedevelopedonlyforinterstatewaters,andthesciencetosupportthatprocess(i.e.data,methodology)wasintheearlystagesofdevelopment.Thatsystemwasnoteffective,andtherewasnopermitsysteminplacetoenforcetherequirements.Inthe1972CWA,Congressaddedthepermitsystemandarequirementfortechnology-basedeffluentlimitations.[16] Inthe2020SupremeCourtcaseCountyofMauiv.HawaiiWildlifeFund,theCourtalsovalidatedthatsomedischargesmaynotbepointsources,butarethe"functionalequivalentofadirectdischarge"tonavigablewaters,suchasinthiscase,theinjectionofwastewaterintogroundwaterinjectionwells.Asofthetimeofthecase'sdecision,thiswasnotanareatheEPAhasestablishedregulationsfor,andtheCourtinstructedtheEPAtoworkwiththecourtstodefinesuchfunctionalequalivents.TheCourtwrotethatthiswouldlikelydependmostonthedistancethepollutantstraveledandtimetoreachnavigablewaters,withconsiderationforthematerialthatthepollutantstraveledthrough,anyphysicalorchemicalinteractionofthepollutantswithcomponentsintheground,andhowmuchofthepollutantmakesittothenavigablewater.[17]InJuly2021,followingtheSupremeCourtdecision,theHawaiiDistrictCourtdeterminedthattheMauiCountysewagetreatmentplant'sgroundwaterinjectionofsewagewasthe"functionalequivalentofadirectdischarge"andrequiredtheplanttoobtainanNPDESpermit.[18] Technology-basedstandards[edit] The1972CWAcreatedanewrequirementfortechnology-basedstandardsforpointsourcedischarges.EPAdevelopsthosestandardsforcategoriesofdischargers,basedontheperformanceofpollutioncontroltechnologieswithoutregardtotheconditionsofaparticularreceivingwaterbody.TheintentofCongresswastocreatea"levelplayingfield"byestablishingabasicnationaldischargestandardforallfacilitieswithinacategory,usinga"BestAvailableTechnology."Thestandardbecomestheminimumregulatoryrequirementinapermit.Ifthenationalstandardisnotsufficientlyprotectiveataparticularlocation,thenwaterqualitystandardsmaybeemployed.[19] Waterqualitystandards[edit] The1972actauthorizedcontinueduseofthewaterquality-basedapproach,butincoordinationwiththetechnology-basedstandards.Afterapplicationoftechnology-basedstandardstoapermit,ifwaterqualityisstillimpairedfortheparticularwaterbody,thenthepermitagency(stateorEPA)mayaddwaterquality-basedlimitationstothatpermit.Theadditionallimitationsaretobemorestringentthanthetechnology-basedlimitationsandwouldrequirethepermitteetoinstalladditionalcontrols.Waterqualitystandardsconsistoffourbasicelements:1)Designateduses;2)Waterqualitycriteria;3)Antidegradationpolicyand4)Generalpolicies.[20] Designateduses[edit] Accordingtowaterqualitystandardregulations,federallyrecognizedtribes/nationsandstatesarerequiredtospecifyappropriatewateruses.Identificationofappropriatewaterusestakesintoconsiderationtheusageandvalueofpublicwatersupply,protectionoffish,wildlife,recreationalwaters,agricultural,industrialandnavigationalwaterways.Suitabilityofawaterbodyisexaminedbystatesandtribes/nationsusagesbasedonphysical,chemical,andbiologicalcharacteristics.Statesandtribes/nationsalsoexaminegeographicalsettings,scenicqualitiesandeconomicconsiderationstodeterminefitnessofdesignatedusesforwaterbodies.Ifthosestandardsindicatedesignatedusestobelessthanthosecurrentlyattained,statesortribesarerequiredtorevisestandardstoreflecttheusesthatareactuallybeingattained.Foranybodyofwaterwithdesignatedusesthatdonotinclude"fishable/swimmable"targetusethatisidentifiedinsection101(a)(2)ofCWA,a"UseAttainabilityAnalysis"mustbeconducted.Everythreeyears,suchbodiesofwatermustbere-examinedtoverifyifnewinformationisavailablethatdemandarevisionofthestandard.Ifnewinformationisavailablethatspecify“fishable/swimmable”usescanbeattained,theusemustbedesignated.[20] Waterqualitycriteria[edit] FederallyrecognizedIndigenousNationsandstatesprotectdesignatedareasbyadoptingwaterqualitycriteriathattheEPApublishesunder§304(a)oftheCWA,modifyingthe§304(a)criteriatoreflectsite-specificconditionsoradoptingcriteriabasedonotherscientificallydefensiblemethods.Waterqualitycriteriacanbenumericcriteriathattoxicitycausesareknownforprotectionagainstpollutants.Anarrativecriterioniswaterqualitycriteriawhichservesasabasisforlimitingthetoxicityofwastedischargestoaquaticspecies.Abiologicalcriterionisbasedontheaquaticcommunitywhichdescribesthenumberandtypesofspeciesinawaterbody.Anutrientcriterionsolelyprotectsagainstnutrientoverenrichment,andasedimentcriteriondescribesconditionsofcontaminatedanduncontaminatedsedimentsinordertoavoidundesirableeffects.[20] Anti-degradationpolicy[edit] Waterqualitystandardsconsistofananti-degradationpolicythatrequiresstatesandtribestoestablishathree-tieredanti-degradationprogram.Anti-degradationproceduresidentifystepsandquestionsthatneedtobeaddressedwhenspecificactivitiesaffectwaterquality.Tier1isapplicabletoallsurfacewaters.Itmaintainsandprotectscurrentusesandwaterqualityconditionstosupportexistinguses.Currentusesareidentifiedbyshowingthatfishing,swimming,andotherwateruseshaveoccurredandaresuitablesinceNovember28,1975.Tier2maintainsandprotectswaterbodieswithexistingconditionsthatarebettertosupportCWA101(a)(2)"fishable/swimmable"uses.Tier3maintainsandprotectswaterqualityinoutstandingnationalresourcewaters(ONRWs),whicharethehighestqualitywatersintheUSwithecologicalsignificance.[20] Generalpolicies[edit] StatesandNativeAmericantribesadoptgeneralpoliciespertainingtowaterqualitystandardsthataresubjecttoreviewandapprovalbytheEPA.Thoseprovisionsonwaterqualitystandardsincludemixingzones,variance,andlowflowpolicies.Mixingzonepolicyisdefinedareasurroundingapointsourcedischargewheresewageisdilutedbywater.Methodologyofmixingzoneproceduredeterminesthelocation,size,shapeandqualityofmixingzones.Variancepolicytemporarilyrelaxwaterqualitystandardandarealternativestoremovingadesignateduse.Statesandtribesmayincludevarianceaspartoftheirwaterqualitystandard.Varianceissubjecttopublicrevieweverythreeyearsandwarrantdevelopmenttowardsimprovementofwaterquality.LowFlowpolicypertainstostatesandtribeswaterqualitystandardsthatidentifyproceduresappliedtodeterminingcriticallowflowconditions.[20] Nonpointsources[edit] Nonpointsourcepollutants,suchassediments,nutrients,pesticides,fertilizersandanimalwastes,accountformorethanhalfofthepollutioninU.S.waters.[21] Congressexemptedsomewaterpollutionsourcesfromthepointsourcedefinitioninthe1972CWAandwasunclearonthestatusofsomeothersources.Suchsourceswerethereforeconsideredtobenonpointsourcesthatwerenotsubjecttothepermitprogram. Agriculturalstormwaterdischargesandirrigationreturnflowswerespecificallyexemptedfrompermitrequirements.[22]Congress,however,providedsupportforresearch,technicalandfinancialassistanceprogramsattheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturetoimproverunoffmanagementpracticesonfarms.SeeNaturalResourcesConservationService. Mapofmunicipalseparatestormsewersystems Stormwaterrunofffromindustrialsources,municipalstormdrains,andothersourceswerenotspecificallyaddressedinthe1972law.EPAhaddeclinedtoincludeurbanrunoffandindustrialstormwaterdischargesinitsinitialimplementationoftheNPDESprogram,andsubsequentlytheagencywassuedbyanenvironmentalgroup.In1977,theD.C.CircuitCourtofAppealsruledthatstormwaterdischargesmustbecoveredbythepermitprogram.[23] Researchconductedstartinginthelate1970sand1980sindicatedthatstormwaterrunoffwasasignificantcauseofwaterqualityimpairmentinmanypartsoftheUS.Intheearly1980s,theEPAconductedtheNationwideUrbanRunoffProgram(NURP)todocumenttheextentoftheurbanstormwaterproblem.Theagencybegantodevelopregulationsforstormwaterpermitcoveragebutencounteredresistancefromindustryandmunicipalities,andtherewereadditionalroundsoflitigation.ThelitigationwaspendingwhenCongressconsideredfurtheramendmentstotheCWAin1986. IntheWaterQualityActof1987,Congressrespondedtothestormwaterproblembydefiningindustrialstormwaterdischargersandmunicipalseparatestormsewersystems(oftencalled"MS4")aspointsources,andrequiringthemtoobtainNPDESpermits,byspecificdeadlines.Thepermitexemptionforagriculturaldischargescontinued,butCongresscreatedseveralprogramsandgrants,includingademonstrationgrantprogramattheEPAtoexpandtheresearchanddevelopmentofnonpointcontrolsandmanagementpractices.[24] Financingofpollutioncontrols[edit] Congresscreatedamajorpublicworksfinancingprogramformunicipalsewagetreatmentinthe1972CWA.AsystemofgrantsforconstructionofmunicipalsewagetreatmentplantswasauthorizedandfundedinTitleII.Intheinitialprogram,thefederalportionofeachgrantwasupto75percentofafacility'scapitalcost,withtheremainderfinancedbythestate.InsubsequentamendmentsCongressreducedthefederalproportionofthegrantsandinthe1987WQAtransitionedtoarevolvingloanprograminTitleVI.Industrialandotherprivatefacilitiesarerequiredtofinancetheirowntreatmentimprovementsonthe"polluterpays"principle. WaterInfrastructureFinanceandInnovationAct[edit] CongresspassedtheWaterInfrastructureFinanceandInnovationActof2014(WIFIA)toprovideanexpandedcreditprogramforwaterandwastewaterinfrastructureprojects,withbroadereligibilitycriteriathanthepreviously-authorizedrevolvingfundunterCWATitleVI.[25]PursuanttoWIFIA,EPAestablisheditsWaterInfrastructureandResiliencyFinanceCenterin2015tohelplocalgovernmentsandmunicipalutilitiesdesigninnovativefinancingmechanisms,includingpublic–privatepartnerships.[26]CongressamendedtheWIFIAprogramin2015and2016.[27] Majorstatutoryprovisions[edit] ThisActhassixtitles. TitleI-ResearchandRelatedPrograms[edit] TitleIincludesaDeclarationofGoalsandPolicy[28]andvariousgrantauthorizationsforresearchprogramsandpollutioncontrolprograms.Someoftheprogramsauthorizedbythe1972lawareongoing(e.g.section104researchprograms,section106pollutioncontrolprograms,section117ChesapeakeBayProgram)whileotherprogramsnolongerreceivefundsfromCongressandhavebeendiscontinued. TitleII-GrantsforConstructionofTreatmentWorks[edit] Theconstructiongrantsprogramfundednewsewagetreatmentplantsandupgradingexistingplantstonationalsecondarytreatmentstandards. Toassistmunicipalitiesinbuildingorexpandingsewagetreatmentplants,alsoknownaspubliclyownedtreatmentworks(POTW),TitleIIestablishedasystemofconstructiongrants.The1972CWAprovidedthatfederalfundswouldsupport75%ofprojectcosts,withstateandlocalfundsprovidingtheremaining25%.In1981Congressreducedthefederalfundingproportionformostgrantsto55%.[29]: 4 [30] TheconstructiongrantprogramwasreplacedbytheCleanWaterStateRevolvingFundinthe1987WQA(seeTitleVI),althoughsomelocalutilitiescontinuedtoreceive"specialpurposeprojectgrants"directlyfromCongress,throughabudgetaryprocedureknownas"earmarking."[29]: 5  TitleIII-Standardsandenforcement[edit] Dischargepermitsrequired[edit] Section301oftheActprohibitsdischargestowatersoftheU.S.exceptwithapermit.[31] (SeeTitleIVfordiscussionofpermitprograms.)Recreationalvesselsareexemptfromthepermitrequirements,butvesseloperatorsmustimplementBestManagementPracticestocontroltheirdischarges.[32](SeeRegulationofshippollutionintheUnitedStates.) Technology-BasedStandardsProgram[edit] Underthe1972actEPAbegantoissuetechnology-basedstandardsformunicipalandindustrialsources. Municipalsewagetreatmentplants(POTW)arerequiredtomeetsecondarytreatmentstandards.[33] Effluentguidelines(forexistingsources)andNewSourcePerformanceStandards(NSPS)areissuedforcategoriesofindustrialfacilitiesdischargingdirectlytosurfacewaters.[34] CategoricalPretreatmentStandardsareissuedtoindustrialusers(alsocalled"indirectdischargers")contributingwastestoPOTW.[35]Thesestandardsaredevelopedinconjunctionwiththeeffluentguidelinesprogram.AswitheffluentguidelinesandNSPS,pretreatmentstandardsconsistsofPretreatmentStandardsforExistingSources(PSES)andPretreatmentStandardsforNewSources(PSNS).Thereare28categorieswithpretreatmentstandardsasof2020. Asof2020theeffluentguidelinesandcategoricalpretreatmentstandardsregulationshavebeenpublishedfor59categoriesandapplytoapproximately40,000facilitiesthatdischargedirectlytothenation'swaters,129,000facilitiesthatdischargetoPOTWs,andconstructionsites.Theseregulationsareresponsibleforpreventingthedischargeofalmost700billionpoundsofpollutantseachyear.[36]EPAhasupdatedsomecategoriessincetheirinitialpromulgationandhasaddednewcategories.[37] ThesecondarytreatmentstandardsforPOTWsandtheeffluentguidelinesareimplementedthroughNPDESpermits.(SeeTitleIV.)ThecategoricalpretreatmentstandardsaretypicallyimplementedbyPOTWsthroughpermitsthattheyissuetotheirindustrialusers.[38] WaterQualityStandardsProgram[edit] TheframeworkthatcameoutoftheCleanWaterActtobeimplementedbytheEPAandstatesincludesstatesmonitoringtheirwaterbodiesandestablishingWaterQualityStandardsforthem.[2]WaterQualityStandards(WQS)arerisk-basedrequirementswhichsetsite-specificallowablepollutantlevelsforindividualwaterbodies,suchasrivers,lakes,streamsandwetlands.StatessetWQSbydesignatingusesforthewaterbody(e.g.,recreation,watersupply,aquaticlife,agriculture)andapplyingwaterqualitycriteria(numericpollutantconcentrationsandnarrativerequirements)toprotectthedesignateduses.Anantidegradationpolicyisalsoissuedbyeachstatetomaintainandprotectexistingusesandhighqualitywaters.[39] IfastatefailstoissueWQS,EPAisrequiredtoissuestandardsforthatstate.[40] Waterbodiesthatdonotmeetapplicablewaterqualitystandardswithtechnology-basedcontrolsaloneareplacedonthesection303(d)listofwaterbodiesnotmeetingstandards.Waterbodiesonthe303(d)listrequiredevelopmentofaTotalMaximumDailyLoad(TMDL).ATMDLisacalculationofthemaximumamountofapollutantthatawaterbodycanreceiveandstillmeetWQS.TheTMDLisdeterminedafterstudyofthespecificpropertiesofthewaterbodyandthepollutantsourcesthatcontributetothenon-compliantstatus.Generally,theTMDLdeterminesloadbasedonaWasteLoadAllocation(WLA),LoadAllocation(LA),andMarginofSafety(MOS)OncetheTMDLassessmentiscompletedandthemaximumpollutantloadingcapacitydefined,animplementationplanisdevelopedthatoutlinesthemeasuresneededtoreducepollutantloadingtothenon-compliantwaterbody,andbringitintocompliance.Over60,000TMDLsareproposedorindevelopmentforU.S.watersinthenextdecadeandahalf. FollowingtheissuanceofaTMDLforawaterbody,implementationoftherequirementsinvolvesmodificationtoNPDESpermitsforfacilitiesdischargingtothewaterbodytomeettheWLAallocatedtothewaterbody(seeTitleIV).ThedevelopmentofWQSandTMDLisacomplexprocess,bothscientificallyandlegally,anditisaresource-intensiveprocessforstateagencies. MorethanhalfofU.S.streamandrivermilescontinuetoviolatewaterqualitystandards.Surveysoflakes,pondsandreservoirsindicatedthatabout70percentwereimpaired(measuredonasurfaceareabasis),andalittlemorethan70percentofthenation'scoastlines,and90percentofthesurveyedoceanandnearcoastalareaswerealsoimpaired.[41] NationalWaterQualityInventory[edit] Theprimarymodeofinformingthequalityofwaterofrivers,lakes,streams,ponds,estuaries,coastalwatersandwetlandsoftheU.S.isthroughtheNationalWaterQualityInventoryReport.Waterqualityassessmentsareconductedpursuanttowaterqualitystandardsadoptedbystatesandotherjurisdictions(territories,interstatecommissionsandtribes).ThereportisconveyedtoCongressasameanstoinformCongressandthepublicofcompliancewithqualitystandardsestablishedbystates,territoriesandtribes.[42][43]Theassessmentsidentifywaterqualityproblemswithinthestatesandjurisdictions,listtheimpairedandthreatenedwaterbodies,andidentifynon-pointsourcesthatcontributetopoorwaterquality.EverytwoyearsstatesmustsubmitreportsthatdescribewaterqualityconditionstoEPAwithacompleteinquiryofsocialandeconomiccostsandbenefitsofachievinggoalsoftheAct.[42] Enforcement[edit] Undersection309,EPAcanissueadministrativeordersagainstviolators,andseekcivilorcriminalpenaltieswhennecessary.[44] Forafirstoffenseofcriminalnegligence,theminimumfineis$2,500,withamaximumof$25,000fineperdayofviolation.Aviolatormayalsoreceiveuptoayearinjail.Onasecondoffense,amaximumfineof$50,000perdaymaybeissued. Foraknowingendangermentviolation,i.e.placinganotherpersoninimminentdangerofdeathorseriousbodilyinjury,afinemaybeissuedupto$250,000and/orimprisonmentupto15yearsforanindividual,orupto$1,000,000foranorganization. StatesthatareauthorizedbyEPAtoadministertheNPDESprogrammusthaveauthoritytoenforcepermitrequirementsundertheirrespectivestatelaws. Federalfacilities[edit] Militarybases,nationalparksandotherfederalfacilitiesmustcomplywithCWAprovisions.[45] Thermalpollution[edit] Section316requiresstandardsforthermalpollutiondischarges,aswellasstandardsforcoolingwaterintakestructures(e.g.,fishscreens).[46]Thesestandardsareapplicabletopowerplantsandotherindustrialfacilities.[47] NonpointSourceManagementProgram[edit] The1987amendmentscreatedtheNonpointSourceManagementProgramunderCWAsection319.[48]Thisprogramprovidesgrantstostates,territoriesandIndiantribestosupportdemonstrationprojects,technologytransfer,education,training,technicalassistanceandrelatedactivitiesdesignedtoreducenonpointsourcepollution.Grantfundingfortheprogramaveraged$210millionannuallyforFiscalYears2004through2008.[49] Militaryvessels[edit] CongressamendedtheCWAin1996torequiredevelopmentofUniformNationalDischargeStandards("UNDS")formilitaryvessels.[50]EPAandtheDepartmentofDefensepublishedstandardsin2017and2020.[51][52] TitleIV-Permitsandlicenses[edit] Statecertificationofcompliance[edit] Statesarerequiredtocertifythatdischargesauthorizedbyfederalpermitswillnotviolatethestate'swaterqualitystandards.[53] NPDESpermitsforpointsources[edit] ComponentsofanNPDESpermit TheNPDESpermitsprogramisauthorizedbyCWAsection402.[54]Theinitialpermitsissuedinthe1970sandearly1980sfocusedonPOTWsandindustrialwastewater—typically"process"wastewaterandcoolingwaterwhereapplicable,andinsomecases,industrialstormwater.The1987WQAexpandedtheprogramtocoverstormwaterdischargesexplicitly,bothfrommunicipalseparatestormsewersystems(MS4)andindustrialsources.[55]TheMS4NPDESpermitsrequireregulatedmunicipalitiestouseBestManagementPracticestoreducepollutantstothe"MaximumExtentPracticable."MS4sserveover80%oftheUSpopulationandprovidedrainagefor4%ofthelandarea.[56] POTWswithcombinedsewersarerequiredtocomplywiththenationalCombinedSewerOverflowControlPolicy,publishedbyEPAin1994.[57]Thepolicyrequiresmunicipalitiestomakeimprovementstoreduceoreliminateoverflow-relatedpollutionproblems.[58]About860communitiesintheUShavecombinedsewersystems,servingabout40millionpeople.[59] Non-stormwaterpermitstypicallyincludenumericeffluentlimitationsforspecificpollutants.Anumericlimitationquantifiesthemaximumpollutantloadorconcentrationallowedinthedischarge,e.g.,30 mg/Lofbiochemicaloxygendemand.Exceedinganumericlimitationconstitutesaviolationofthepermit,andthedischargerissubjecttofinesaslaidoutinsection309.Facilitiesmustperiodicallymonitortheireffluent(i.e.,collectandanalyzewastewatersamples),andsubmitDischargeMonitoringReportstotheappropriateagency,todemonstratecompliance.StormwaterpermitstypicallyrequirefacilitiestoprepareaStormwaterPollutionPreventionPlanandimplementbestmanagementpractices,butdonotspecifynumericeffluentlimitsandmaynotincluderegularmonitoringrequirements.Somepermitscoverbothstormwaterandnon-stormwaterdischarges.NPDESpermitsmustbereissuedeveryfiveyears.Permitagencies(EPA,states,tribes)mustprovidenoticetothepublicofpendingpermitsandprovideanopportunityforpubliccomment.[60] In2012,EPAestimatedthatthereareover500,000stormwaterpermittees.Thisnumberincludespermanentfacilitiessuchasmunicipal(POTW,MS4)andindustrialplants;andconstructionsites,whicharetemporarystormwaterdischargers.[61] Dredgeandfillpermits[edit] Section404requiresthatadischargerofdredgedorfillmaterialobtainapermit,unlesstheactivityiseligibleforanexemption.[62]Essentially,alldischargesaffectingthebottomelevationofajurisdictionalwaterbodyrequireapermitfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE).Thesepermitsareanessentialpartofprotectingstreamsandwetlands,whichareoftenfilledbylanddevelopers.Wetlandsarevitaltotheecosysteminfilteringstreamsandriversandprovidinghabitatforwildlife.[63] Therearetwomaintypesofwetlandspermits:generalpermitsandindividualpermits.Generalpermitschangeperiodicallyandcoverbroadcategoriesofactivities,andrequirethepermitteetocomplywithallstatedconditions.Generalpermits(suchasthe"NationwidePermits")areissuedforfillactivitiesthatwillresultinminimaladverseeffectstotheenvironment.Individualpermitsareutilizedforactionsthatarenotaddressedbyageneralpermit,orthatdonotmeettheconditionsofaGeneralPermit.Inaddition,individualpermitstypicallyrequiremoreanalysisthandothegeneralpermits,andusuallyrequiremuchmoretimetopreparetheapplicationandtoprocessthepermit. WhentheUSACEprocessesanapplicationforanIndividualPermit,itmustissueapublicnoticedescribingtheproposedactiondescribedinthepermitapplication.AlthoughtheCorpsDistrictEngineermakesthedecisiontograntapermit,theEPAAdministratormayvetoapermitifitisnotreasonable.Beforemakingsuchadecision,however,EPAmustconsultwiththeUSACE.AUSACEpermittypicallyexpiresafterfiveyears. Mountaintopremovalminingrequiresasection404permitwhensoilandrockfromtheminingoperationisplacedinstreamsandwetlands(commonlycalleda"valleyfill").PollutantdischargesfromvalleyfillstostreamsalsorequiresanNPDESpermit.[64] Exemptions[edit] AfterpassageoftheCWAin1972,acontroversyaroseastotheapplicationofsection404toagricultureandcertainotheractivities.TheActwasinterpretedbysometoplacerestrictionsonvirtuallyallplacementofdredgedmaterialsinwetlandsandotherwatersoftheUnitedStates,raisingconcernthatthefederalgovernmentwasabouttoplaceallagriculturalactivitiesunderthejurisdictionofUSACE.ForopponentsoftheAct,section404had,asaresultofthisconcern,becomeasymbolofdramaticover-regulation.[65]: 901–903 WhenCongressconsideredthe1977CWAAmendments,asignificantissuewastoensurethatcertainagriculturalactivitiesandotherselectedactivities,couldcontinuewithoutthegovernment'ssupervision—inotherwords,completelyoutsidetheregulatoryorpermitjurisdictionofanyfederalagency. The1977amendmentsincludedasetofsixsection404exemptions.Forexample,totallynewactivitiessuchasconstructionoffarmroads,Sec.1344(f)(1)(E),constructionoffarmorstockpondsorirrigationditches,andminoragriculturaldrainage,Sec.1344(f)(1)(A),allareexemptedbyStatute.Section1344(f)(1)(C),whichexemptsdischargeofdredgedmaterial“forthepurposeof...themaintenanceofdrainageditches.”Alloftheseexemptionswereenvisionedtobeself-executing,thatisnottechnicallyrequiringanadministrativeno-jurisdictiondetermination.Onesuchexamplewasthemaintenanceofagriculturaldrainageditches.[65]: 906 Throughoutthehearingprocess,Congressmenofeveryenvironmentalpersuasionrepeatedlystatedthattheover$5Billioninvestedindrainagefacilitiescouldbemaintainedwithoutgovernmentregulationofanykind.[65]: 906–912 SenatorEdmundMuskie,forexample,explainedthatexemptactivitiessuchasagriculturaldrainagewouldbeentirelyunregulated.[65]: 949 Otherexemptionsweregrantedaswell,includingexemptionsfornormalfarmingactivities. Importanceofno-jurisdictiondeterminations[edit] AlthoughCongressenvisionedasetofself-executingexemptions,ithasbecomecommonforlandownerstoseekno-jurisdictiondeterminationsfromtheUSACE.Alandownerwhointendstomakesubstantialinvestmentsinacquisitionorimprovementoflandmightlawfullyproceedwithexemptactivity,apermitnotbeingrequired.Theproblemisthatifthelandowner'sassumptionswereincorrectandtheactivitylaterdeterminednottobeexempt,theUSACEwillissueaceaseanddesistorder.Obtaininganadvancedrulingprovidessomelevelofcomfortthattheactivitieswillhavebeendeemedconductedingoodfaith. Recaptureofexemptions[edit] Becausesomeofthesixexemptionsinvolvednewactivities,suchasminordrainageandsilviculture(theclearingofforestsbythetimberindustry),Congressrecognizedtheneedtoimposesomelimitationsonexemptions.Consequently,Congressplacedtheso-calledrecaptureclauselimitationonthesenewprojectexemptions.Undersection404(f)(2),suchnewprojectswouldbedeprivedoftheirexemptionifallofthefollowingthreecharacteristicscouldbeshown: AdischargeofdredgeorfillmaterialinthenavigablewatersoftheUnitedStates; Thedischargeisincidentaltoanactivityhavingasitspurposethebringingofanareaofnavigablewatersintoausetowhichitwasnotpreviouslysubject,and Wherethefloworcirculationofnavigablewatersmaybeimpairedorthereachofsuchwatersmaybereduced. Toremovetheexemption,alloftheserequirementsmustbefulfilled—thedischarge,theprojectpurposeofbringinganareaintoausetowhichitwasnotpreviouslysubject,andtheimpairmentorreductionofnavigablewaters. POTWBiosolidsManagementProgram[edit] The1987WQAcreatedaprogramformanagementofbiosolids(sludge)generatedbyPOTWs.[66]TheActinstructedEPAtodevelopguidelinesforusageanddisposalofsewagesludgeorbiosolids.TheEPAregulations:(1)Identifyusesforsewagesludge,includingdisposal;(2)Specifyfactorstobetakenintoaccountindeterminingthemeasuresandpracticesapplicabletoeachsuchuseordisposal(includingpublicationofinformationoncosts);and(3)Identifyconcentrationsofpollutantswhichinterferewitheachsuchuseordisposal.EPAcreatedanIntra-AgencySludgeTaskForcetoaidindevelopingcomprehensivesludgeregulationsthataredesignedtodothefollowing:(1)Conductamultimediaexaminationofsewagesludgemanagement,focusingonsewagesludgegeneratedbyPOTWs;and(2)developacohesiveAgencypolicyonsewagesludgemanagement,designedtoguidetheAgencyinimplementingsewagesludgeregulatoryandmanagementprograms.[67] Thetermbiosolidsisusedtodifferentiatetreatedsewagesludgethatcanbebeneficiallyrecycled.Environmentaladvantagesofsewagesludgeconsistof,applicationofsludgetolandduetoitssoilconditionpropertiesandnutrientcontent.Advantagesalsoextendtoreductioninadversehealtheffectsofincineration,decreasedchemicalfertilizerdependency,diminishinggreenhousegasemissionsderivingfromincinerationandreductioninincinerationfuelandenergycosts.BeneficialreuseofsewagesludgeissupportedinEPApolicies:the1984BeneficialReusePolicyandthe1991Inter-agencyPolicyonBeneficialUseofSewageSludge,withanobjectivetoreducevolumesofwastegenerated.Sewagesludgecontainsnutrientssuchasnitrogenandphosphorusbutalsocontainssignificantnumbersofpathogenssuchasbacteria,viruses,protozoaandeggsofparasiticworms.Sludgealsocontainsmorethantraceamountsoforganicandinorganicchemicals.Benefitsofreusingsewagesludgefromuseoforganicandnutrientcontentinbiosolidsisvaluablesourceinimprovingmarginallandsandservingassupplementstofertilizersandsoilconditioners.Extensionofbenefitsofsludgeonagriculturecommoditiesincludeincreaseforestproductivity,acceleratedtreegrowth,re-vegetationofforestlandpreviouslydevastatedbynaturaldisastersorconstructionactivities.Also,sewagesludgeusetoaidgrowthoffinalvegetativecapformunicipalsolidwastelandfillsisenormouslybeneficial.Opposingbenefitsofsludgewaterresultfromhighlevelsofpathogenicorganismsthatcanpossiblycontaminatesoil,water,crops,livestock,andfish.Pathogens,metals,organicchemicalcontentandodorsarecauseofmajorhealth,environmentalandaestheticfactors.Sludgetreatmentprocessesreducethelevelofpathogenswhichbecomesimportantwhenapplyingsludgetolandaswellasdistributingandmarketingit.Pollutantsofsewagesludgecomefromdomesticwastewater,dischargeofindustrialwastewater,municipalsewersandalsofromrunoffsfromparkinglots,lawnsandfieldsthatwereappliedfertilizers,pesticidesandinsecticides.[67] Thequalityofsewagesludgeiscontrolledundersection405(d),wherelimitationsaresetwithmethodsofuseordisposalforpollutantsinsludge.EPA,undersection405(d)(3),establishedacontainmentapproachtolimitpollutantsinsteadofnumericallimitations.Thismethodologyismorereasonablethannumericallimitationsandincludesdesignstandards,equipmentstandards,managementpractice,andoperationalstandardsorcombinationofthese.Limitsonsewagesludgequalityallowstreatmentworksthatgeneratelesscontaminatedpollutantsandthosethatdonotmeetthesludgequalitystandardsforuseanddisposalpracticemustcleanupinfluent,improvesewagesludgetreatmentand/orselectanotheruseofdisposalmethod.EPAhassetstandardsforappropriatepracticesofuseanddisposalofbiosolidsinordertoprotectpublichealthandtheenvironment,butchoiceofuseordisposalpracticesarereservedtolocalcommunities.Listedundersection405(e)ofCWA,localcommunitiesareencouragedtousetheirsewagesludgeforitsbeneficialpropertiesinsteadofdisposingit.[67] Standardsaresetforsewagesludgegeneratedortreatedbypubliclyownedandprivatelyownedtreatmentworksthattreatdomesticsewageandmunicipalwastewater.Materialsflushedinhouseholddrainsthroughsinks,toiletsandtubsarereferredtoasdomesticwastewaterandincludecomponentsofsoaps,shampoos,humanexcrement,tissues,foodparticles,pesticides,hazardouswaste,oilandgrease.Thesedomesticwastewatersaretreatedatthesourceinseptictanks,cesspools,portabletoilets,orinpublicly/privatelyownedwastewatertreatmentworks.Alternately,municipalwastewatertreatmentsconsistofmorelevelsoftreatmentthatprovidegreaterwastewatercleanupwithlargeramountsofsewagesludge.Primarymunicipaltreatmentremovesolidsthatsettleatthebottom,generatingmorethan3,000litersofsludgepermillionlitersofwastewaterthatistreated.Primarysludgewatercontentiseasilyreducedbythickeningorremovingwaterandcontainsupto7%solids.Secondarymunicipaltreatmentprocessproducessewagesludgethatisgeneratedbybiologicaltreatmentprocessesthatincludeactivatedsludgesystems,tricklingfilters,andotherattachedgrowthsystems.Microbesareusedtobreakdownandconvertorganicsubstancesinwastewatertomicrobialresidueinbiologicaltreatmentprocesses.Thisprocessremovesupto90%oforganicmatterandproducessludgethatcontainsupto2%solidsandhasincreasedgeneratedvolumesofsludge.Methodsofuseanddisposalofsewagesludgeincludethefollowing:Applicationofsludgetoagriculturalandnon-agriculturallands;saleorgive-awayofsludgeforuseinhomegardens;disposalofsludgeinmunicipallandfills,sludge-onlylandfills,surfacedisposalsitesandincinerationofsludge.Managingqualityofsewagesludgenotonlyinvolveswastewaterreductionandseparationofcontaminatedwastefromnon-contaminantsbutalsopretreatmentofnon-domesticwastewater.Ifpretreatmentdoesnotsufficientlyreducepollutantlevels,communitieshavetodisposeratherthanusesludge.[67] TitleV-GeneralProvisions[edit] Citizensuits[edit] AnyU.S.citizenmayfileacitizensuitagainstanypersonwhohasallegedlyviolatedaneffluentstandardorlimitation(i.e.,aprovisioninanNPDESpermit)oragainsttheEPAAdministratoriftheAdministratorfailedtoperformanynon-discretionaryactordutyrequiredbytheCWA.[68] Employeeprotection[edit] TheCWAincludesanemployee("whistleblower")protectionprovision.EmployeesintheU.S.whobelievetheywerefiredorsufferedadverseactionrelatedtoenforcementoftheCWAmayfileawrittencomplaintwiththeOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration.[69] TitleVI-StateWaterPollutionControlRevolvingFunds[edit] TheCleanWaterStateRevolvingFund(CWSRF)programwasauthorizedbythe1987WQA.[70]Thisreplacedthemunicipalconstructiongrantsprogram,whichwasauthorizedinthe1972lawunderTitleII.IntheCWSRF,federalfundsareprovidedtothestatesandPuertoRicotocapitalizetheirrespectiverevolvingfunds,whichareusedtoprovidefinancialassistance(loansorgrants)tolocalgovernmentsforwastewatertreatment,nonpointsourcepollutioncontrolandestuaryprotection.[71] Thefundprovidesloanstomunicipalitiesatlower-than-marketrates.Theprogram'saverageinterestratewas1.4percentnationwidein2017,comparedtoanaveragemarketrateof3.5percent.In2017,CWSRFassistancetotaling$7.4billionwasprovidedto1,484localprojectsacrossthecountry.[72] Recentdevelopments[edit] WatersoftheUnitedStates[edit] Mainarticle:CleanWaterRule InMay2015EPAreleasedanewruleonthedefinitionof"watersoftheUnitedStates"("WOTUS")andthefutureenforcementoftheact.[73][74]Thirteenstatessued,andonAugust27U.S.ChiefDistrictJudgeforNorthDakotaRalphR.Ericksonissuedapreliminaryinjunctionblockingtheregulationinthosestates.[75]Inaseparatelawsuit,onOctober9adividedSixthCircuitappealscourtstayedtherule'sapplicationnationwide.[76]CongressthenpassedajointresolutionundertheCongressionalReviewActoverturningtheWOTUSrule,[77]butPresidentBarackObamavetoedthemeasure.[78] OnFebruary28,2017,PresidentDonaldTrumpsigneddocumentsdirectingEPAandtheArmyCorpsofEngineerstoreviewandrewritetheObamaadministration's"CleanWaterRule,"whichwouldclarifytheWOTUSdefinition.Theagencieswereorderedtoreassesstheruleconsistentwithpromotingeconomicgrowthandminimizingregulatoryuncertainty.[79] TheSixthCircuitappealscourtstaywasoverturnedonJanuary22,2018whentheSupremeCourtruledunanimouslythatchallengestothe2015rulemustbefiledinUnitedStatesdistrictcourts.[80]EPAthenformallysuspendedthe2015regulationandannouncedplanstoissueanewversionlaterin2018.[81]TheTrumpadministrationformallyrepealedtheWOTUSruleonOctober22,2019[82][83]andpublishedareplacementruleonApril21,2020.[84]OnAugust30,2021,theUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofArizonathrewoutthe2020replacementrule.[85][86] InJune2021theadministrationofPresidentJoeBidenannouncedthatitwouldbeginanewrulemakingtoreversethe2019/2020replacementrule.[87] Earlierlegislation[edit] Duringthe1880sand1890s,CongressdirectedUSACEtopreventdumpingandfillinginthenation'sharbors,andtheprogramwasvigorouslyenforced.[88]CongressfirstaddressedwaterpollutionissuesintheRiversandHarborsActof1899,[89]givingtheCorpstheauthoritytoregulatemostkindsofobstructionstonavigation,includinghazardsresultingfromeffluents.Portionsofthislawremainineffect,includingSection13,theso-calledRefuseAct.In1910,USACEusedtheacttoobjecttoaproposedsewerinNewYorkCity,butacourtruledthatpollutioncontrolwasamatterlefttothestatesalone.Speakingtothe1911NationalRiversandHarborsCongress,thechiefoftheCorps,WilliamH.Bixby,suggestedthatmoderntreatmentfacilitiesandprohibitionsondumping"shouldeitherbemadecompulsoryoratleastencouragedeverywhereintheUnitedStates."[88]Mostlegalanalystshaveconcludedthatthe1899lawdidnotaddressenvironmentalimpactsfrompollution,suchassewageorindustrialdischarges.However,therewereseveralpollutionenforcementcasesinthe1960sand1970swherethelawwascitedforbroaderpollutioncontrolobjectives.[90] Somesectionsofthe1899acthavebeensupersededbyvariousamendments,includingthe1972CWA,whileothernotablelegislativepredecessorsinclude: PublicHealthServiceActof1912expandedthemissionoftheUnitedStatesPublicHealthServicetostudyproblemsofsanitation,sewageandpollution.[91] OilPollutionActof1924prohibitedtheintentionaldischargeoffueloilintotidalwaters[92]andprovidedauthorizationforUSACEtoapprehendviolators.Thiswasrepealedbythe1972CWA,reducingtheCorps'roleinpollutioncontroltothedischargeofdredgedorfillmaterial.[88][93] FederalWaterPollutionControlActof1948createdacomprehensivesetofwaterqualityprogramsthatalsoprovidedsomefinancingforstateandlocalgovernments.Enforcementwaslimitedtointerstatewaters.ThePublicHealthServiceprovidedfinancialandtechnicalassistance.[94] WaterQualityActof1965requiredstatestoissuewaterqualitystandardsforinterstatewaters,andauthorizedthenewlycreatedFederalWaterPollutionControlAdministrationtosetstandardswherestatesfailedtodoso.[95] WhenEPAfirstopeneditsdoorsin1970,theagencyhadweakauthoritytoprotectU.S.waters,lackingthelegalpowertowriteeffluentguidelinesandpossessingonlygeneralauthoritytorequiresecondarytreatmentfromindustrialdischargers.[96] The1969burningCuyahogaRiverhadsparkednationaloutrage;theActgrewoutofit.[97]InDecember1970afederalgrandjuryinvestigationledbyU.S.AttorneyRobertJones(Ohiolawyer)began,ofwaterpollutionallegedlybeingcausedbyabout12companiesinnortheasternOhio.Itwasthefirstgrandjuryinvestigationofwaterpollutioninthearea.[98]TheAttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,JohnN.Mitchell,gaveaPressConferenceDecember18,1970referencingnewpollutioncontrollitigation,withparticularreferencetoworkwiththenewEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,andannouncingthefilingofalawsuitthatmorningagainsttheJonesandLaughlinSteelCorporationfordischargingsubstantialquantitiesofcyanideintotheCuyahogaRivernearCleveland.[99]Itwaslargelybasedontheseandotherlitigationexperiencesthatcriteriafornewlegislationwereidentified. Caselaw[edit] UnitedStatesv.RiversideBayviewHomes,Inc.(1985).TheSupremeCourtupheldtheAct'scoverageinregulatingwetlandsthatinterminglewithnavigablewaters.[100]Thisrulingwasrevisedbythe2006Rapanosdecision. EdwardHanousek,Jrv.UnitedStates(9thCir.CourtofAppeals,1996;certioraridenied,2000).In1994,duringrockremovaloperations,abackhoeoperatoraccidentallystruckapetroleumpipelineneartherailroadtracks.Theoperator'smistakecausedthepipelinetoruptureandspillbetween1,000and5,000gallonsofheatingoilintotheSkagwayriver.DespitenotbeingpresentatthesceneduringoperationsWhitePassandYukonRouteRoadmasterEdwardHanousek,Jr.andPresidentPaulTaylorwerebothheldresponsibleforthespillandconvicted.[101][102] SolidWasteAgencyofNorthCookCounty(SWANCC)v.UnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineers(2001),possiblydenyingtheCWA'sholdinisolatedintrastatewatersandcertainlydenyingthevalidityofthe1986"MigratoryBirdRule."[103] S.D.WarrenCo.v.MaineBd.ofEnv.Protection(2006).TheCourtruledthatsection401statecertificationrequirementsapplytohydroelectricdams,whicharefederallylicensed,wherethedamscauseadischargeintonavigablewaters.[104] Rapanosv.UnitedStates(2006).TheSupremeCourtquestionedfederaljurisdictionasitattemptedtodefinetheAct'suseoftheterms"navigablewaters"and"watersoftheUnitedStates."TheCourtrejectedthepositionoftheUSACEthatitsauthorityoverwaterwasessentiallylimitless.Thoughthecaseresultedinnobindingcaselaw,theCourtsuggestedanarrowingoffederaljurisdictionandimpliedthefederalgovernmentneededamoresubstantiallinkbetweennavigablefederalwatersandwetlandsthanithadbeenusing,butheldontothe"significantnexus"test.[105][106] NorthwestEnvironmentalAdvocatesetal.v.EPA(9thCir.CourtofAppeals,2008).VesseldischargesaresubjecttoNPDESpermitrequirements.[107]SeeBallastwaterregulationintheUnitedStates. NationalCottonCouncilv.EPA(6thCir.CourtofAppeals,2009).Pointsourcedischargesofbiologicalpesticides,andchemicalpesticidesthatleavearesidue,intowatersoftheU.S.aresubjecttoNPDESpermitrequirements.[108][109] ArmyCorpsofEngineersv.HawkesCo.578U.S.__(2016),8-0rulingthatajurisdictionaldeterminationbytheArmyCorpsofEngineersthatlandcontains"watersoftheUnitedStates"isa"finalagencyaction",whichisreviewablebythecourts.ThisallowslandownerstosueincourtiftheArmyCorpsofEngineersdeterminesthatthelandcontainswatersoftheUnitedStates(andthereforefallsundertheCleanWaterAct). CountyofMauiv.HawaiiWildlifeFund590U.S.__(2020),a6-3rulingthataNPDESpermitisrequiredforpointsources(asestablishedinthestatute)orfornon-pointsourcesthatare"functionallyequivalent"todirectdischarge,suchasinthespecificcase,wastewaterdischargedintoinjectionwellsthateventuallyreachtheocean,anavigablewaterway. Effects[edit] Seealso:WaterpollutionintheUnitedStates Todate,thewaterqualitygoalsstatedbyCongressinthe1972acthavenotbeenachievedbyAmericansociety: "tomakeallU.S.watersfishableandswimmableby1983;" "tohavezerowaterpollutiondischargeby1985;" "toprohibitdischargeoftoxicamountsoftoxicpollutants".[110]: 1  MorethanhalfofU.S.streamandrivermiles,about70percentoflakes,pondsandreservoirs,and90percentofthesurveyedoceanandnearcoastalareascontinuetoviolatewaterqualitystandards.[41]Thereasonsfortheimpairmentvarybylocation;majorsourcesareagriculture,industryandcommunities(typicallythroughurbanrunoff).Someofthesepollutionsourcesaredifficulttocontrolthroughnationalregulatoryprograms.[111] However,sincethepassageofthe1972act,thelevelsofpollutionintheUnitedStateshaveexperiencedadramaticdecrease.Thelawhasresultedinmuchcleanerwaterwaysthanbeforethebillwaspassed.Agriculture,industry,communitiesandothersourcescontinuetodischargewasteintosurfacewatersnationwide,andmanyofthesewatersaredrinkingwatersources.Inmanywatershedsnutrientpollution(excessnitrogenandphosphorus)hasbecomeamajorproblem.[112]Itisarguedina2008paperthattheCleanWaterActhasmadeextremelypositivecontributionstotheenvironment,butisindesperateneedofreformtoaddressthepollutionproblemsthatremain.[113]A2015paperacknowledgesthattheCWAhasbeeneffectiveincontrollingpointsources,butthatithasnoteffectivewithnonpointsources,andarguesthatthelawmustbeupdatedtoaddressthenation'scurrentwaterqualityproblems.[114] A2017workingpaperfindsthat"mosttypesofwaterpollutiondeclined[overtheperiod1962-2001],thoughtherateofdecreaseslowedovertime...OurfindingofdecreasesinmostpollutantsimpliesthattheprevalenceofsuchviolationswasevengreaterbeforetheCleanWaterAct."SeveralstudieshaveestimatedthatthecostsoftheCWA(includingtheexpendituresfortheTitleIIconstructiongrantsprogram)arehigherthanthebenefits.AnEPAstudyhadsimilarfindings,butacknowledgedthatseveralkindsofbenefitswereunmeasured.[110]: 2 A2018studyarguesthat"availableestimatesofthecostsandbenefitsofwaterpollutioncontrolprograms[includingtheCWA]areincompleteanddonotconclusivelydeterminethenetbenefitsofsurfacewaterquality."[115] Seealso[edit] America'sWaterInfrastructureActof2018 CoastalZoneManagementAct GreatLakesAreasofConcern OceanDumpingAct OilPollutionActof1990 SafeDrinkingWaterAct WatersupplyandsanitationintheUnitedStates Portals:WaterWetlands References[edit] Copeland,Claudia(2016-10-18).CleanWaterAct:ASummaryoftheLaw(PDF)(Report).Washington,D.C.:U.S.CongressionalResearchService.RL30030. ^abRinde,Meir(2017)."RichardNixonandtheRiseofAmericanEnvironmentalism".Distillations.3(1):16–29.Retrieved4April2018. ^abJimHanlon,MikeCook,MikeQuigley,BobWayland.“WaterQuality:AHalfCenturyofProgress.”EPAAlumniAssociation.March2016. ^SeeU.S.EPA,SummaryoftheCleanWaterAct("CleanWaterAct"isthelaw's"commonname,"includinglinktoSenateversionoftheActwithpropertitle). ^UnitedStates.FederalWaterPollutionControlActAmendmentsof1972.Pub.L.92-500,October18,1972. ^CleanWaterActof1977.Pub.L.95-217,December27,1977. ^WaterQualityActof1987.Pub.L.100-4,February4,1987. ^"TheEffects:HumanHealth".NutrientPollution.U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).12March2013.Retrieved2017-04-24. ^"DigestiveDisorders&GastrointestinalDiseases|ClevelandClinic".ClevelandClinic.Retrieved2017-04-24. 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^Stohr,Greg(April23,2020)."SupremeCourtGivesEnvironmentalistsPartialWinonWaterLaw".BloombergNews. ^Hawai'iWildlifeFundetalv.CountyofMaui.OrderGrantingPlaintiffs'sMotionsforSummaryJudgment;OrderDenyingDefendant'sMotionforSummaryJudgment.U.S.DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofHawaii.July15,2021.Civ.No.12-00198. ^NPDESPermitWriters'Manual(Report).EPA.September2010.pp. 1–3–1–5.EPA-833-K-10-001. ^abcdeEPA(2015-10-27)."WhatareWaterQualityStandards?".StandardsforWaterBodyHealth. ^U.S.ForestService,NortheasternArea."ContinuedStrengtheningoftheCleanWaterActReflectsthePublic'sConcernforCleanWater".RiparianForestBuffers:FunctionandDesignforProtectionandEnhancementofWaterResources.Radnor,PA.NA-PR-07-91.Retrieved2012-10-09. ^CWA502(14),33 U.S.C. § 1362. ^NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilv.Train,396F.Supp.1393(D.D.C.1975),aff'd.byNRDCv.Costle,568F.2d1369(D.C.Cir.1977). ^"PollutedRunoff:NonpointSourcePollution".EPA.2017-10-19. ^UnitedStates.WaterInfrastructureFinanceandInnovationActof2014.Pub.L. 113–121(text)(PDF),titleV,§5022.Approved2014-06-10. ^"LearnAbouttheWIFIAProgram".EPA.2017-03-21. ^UnitedStates.1.FixingAmerica'sSurfaceTransportationAct.Pub.L. 114–94(text)(PDF),§1445.Approved2015-12-04.2.WaterInfrastructureImprovementsfortheNationActof2016.Pub.L. 114–322(text)(PDF),§5008.Approved2016-12-16. ^CWA101,33 U.S.C. § 1251. ^abCopeland,Claudia(2012-04-05).WaterInfrastructureFinancing:HistoryofEPAAppropriations(PDF)(Report).U.S.CongressionalResearchService. ^CleanWaterActAmendmentsof1981,Pub.L. 97–117,Sec.7.Approved1981-12-29. ^CWA301(a),33 U.S.C. § 1311(a). ^CWA402(r),33 U.S.C. § 1342(r).ThisprovisionwasaddedbytheCleanBoatingActof2008,Pub.L. 110–288(text)(PDF),July29,2008. ^CWA304(d)(1),33 U.S.C. § 1314(d)(1)and"SecondaryTreatmentRegulation",CodeofFederalRegulations,40 CFR133. ^CWA301,33 U.S.C. § 1311;CWA304(b),33 U.S.C. § 1314(b);andCWA306,33 U.S.C. § 1316.Regulationsat40CFRSubchapterN. ^CWA307(b),33 U.S.C. § 1317(b);andCWA307(c),33 U.S.C. § 1317(c).40CFRSubchapterN. ^"EffluentGuidelinesPlan".EPA.2018-05-02. ^"IndustrialEffluentGuidelines".EPA.2020-04-17. ^IntroductiontotheNationalPretreatmentProgram(Report).EPA.June2011.833-B-11-001. ^"Chapter6.WaterQuality-BasedEffluentLimitations".NPDESPermitWriters'Manual(Report).EPA.September2010.EPA-833-K-10-001. ^CWA303(b),33 U.S.C. § 1313(b) ^ab"NationalSummaryofStateInformation".WaterQualityAssessmentandTMDLInformation.EPA.Retrieved2017-03-01. ^abNationalWaterQualityInventory:ReporttoCongress(Report).EPA.August2017.EPA841-R-16-011. ^CWA305(b),33 U.S.C. § 1315(b). ^CWA309,33 U.S.C. § 1319. ^CWA313,33 U.S.C. § 1323. ^33 U.S.C. § 1326. ^"CoolingWaterIntakes".EPA.2017-04-26. ^33 U.S.C. § 1329. ^EPA."CleanWaterActSection319(h)GrantFundsHistory."Accessed2008-07-28. ^CWA312(n),33 U.S.C. § 1322(n),Pub.L. 104–106(text)(PDF),approved1996-02-10. ^DepartmentofDefense(DOD)andEPA(2017-01-11)."UniformNationalDischargeStandardsforVesselsoftheArmedForces-PhaseIIBatchOne."Finalrule.FederalRegister,82FR3173. ^DODandEPA(2020-07-17)."UniformNationalDischargeStandardsforVesselsoftheArmedForces—PhaseIIBatchTwo."Finalrule.FederalRegister,85FR43465. ^CWA401,33 U.S.C. § 1341. ^CWAsec.402,33 U.S.C. § 1342. ^CWAsec.402(p),33 U.S.C. § 1342(p). ^MunicipalSeparateStormSewerSystemPermits:CompendiumofClear,Specific&MeasurablePermittingExamples(PDF)(Report).EPA.November2018.p. 5.EPA830-S-16-002. ^UnitedStates.WetWeatherQualityActof2000,Section112ofDivisionB,Pub.L. 106–554(text)(PDF),December21,2000.AddedCWAsection402(q),33 U.S.C. § 1342(q). ^EPA(1994-04-19)."CombinedSewerOverflow(CSO)ControlPolicy."FederalRegister,59FR18688. ^"CombinedSewerOverflowFrequentQuestions".NationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem.EPA.2016. ^"Chapter3.OverviewoftheNPDESPermittingProcess".NPDESPermitWriters'Manual(Report).EPA.September2010.EPA-833-K-10-001. ^ 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^U.S.SupremeCourt.UnitedStatesv.RiversideBayviewHomes,474U.S.121(1985). ^U.S.SupremeCourt."EdwardHanousek,Jrv.UnitedStates".Certioraridenied,No.99-323.Decided2000-01-10. ^DimitraLavrakas(2000-08-25)."Taylormaygetnewtrial;CourtofAppealsrules2-1toreverseconviction".Skagway,AK:SkagwayNews.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-01-10. ^531U.S.159(2001). ^547U.S.370(2006). ^U.S.SupremeCourt.Rapanosv.UnitedStates,547U.S.715(2006). ^Copeland,Claudia(2010).LegislativeApproachestoDefining'WatersoftheUnitedStates.'(PDF)(Report).Washington,D.C.:U.S.CongressionalResearchService.R41225. ^NorthwestEnvironmentalAdvocatesetal.v.EPA,537F.3d1006(9thCir.2008).Decided2008-07-23. ^NationalCottonCouncilv.EPA,553F.3d927(6thCir.2009). ^"PesticidePermitting—ProgramHistory".NPDES.EPA.2017-01-03. ^abKeiser,DavidA.;Shapiro,JosephS.(January2017)."ConsequencesoftheCleanWaterActandtheDemandforWaterQuality".NBERWorkingPaperNo.23070.doi:10.3386/w23070. ^Vig,NormanJ.;Kraft,MichaelE.(2017).EnvironmentalPolicy:NewDirectionsfortheTwenty-FirstCentury(10th ed.).Washington,D.C.:CQPress.ISBN 9781506383446. ^"NutrientPollution:TheIssue".EPA.2019-02-04. ^Andreen,WilliamL.;Jones,ShanaC.(July2008).TheCleanWaterAct:ABlueprintForReform(PDF)(Report).Edgewater,MD:CenterforProgressiveReform.CPRWhitePaper#802. ^Radcliffe,Heather(September2015)."ModernizationoftheCleanWaterActisLongOverdue"(PDF).Lowell,MA:NewEnglandInterstateWaterPollutionControlCommission. ^Keiser,DavidA.;Shapiro,JosephS.;Kling,CatherineL.(2019)."ThelowbutuncertainmeasuredbenefitsofUSwaterqualitypolicy".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.116(12):5262–5269.doi:10.1073/pnas.1802870115.PMC 6431143.PMID 30297391. Externallinks[edit] CWAtextandanalysis WorksrelatedtoCleanWaterActatWikisource CleanWaterAct-Fulltextwithamendmentsthrough2011-01-04.MaintainedbyCaliforniaWaterResourcesControlBoard. "CleanWaterActJurisdictionalHandbook."EnvironmentalLawInstitute(2nded.,2012) NYTInvestigation:CorporationsViolatedCleanWaterActOver500,000TimesinLastFiveYears(2009-09-14)-videoreportbyDemocracyNow! EPAprograms CleanWaterStateRevolvingFund TotalMaximumDailyLoadsProgram Historicallegislativedocuments 92ndU.S.Congress(October28,1971)."S.2770,FederalWaterPollutionControlActAmendmentsof1972".86U.S.Stats.816.U.S.CapitolVisitorCenter.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober8,2013.RetrievedSeptember11,2013. GeneralBackground[edit] WaterQuality:AHalfCenturyofProgress,areportbytheEPAAlumniAssociation vteUnitedStatesenvironmentallawSupremeCourtdecisions Missouriv.Holland(1920) SierraClubv.Morton(1972) UnitedStatesv.SCRAP(1973) TennesseeValleyAuthorityv.Hill(1978) VermontYankeev.NRDC(1978) Hughesv.Oklahoma(1979) Lujanv.NationalWildlifeFederation(1990) Lujanv.DefendersofWildlife(1992) UnitedStatesv.Bestfoods(1998) FriendsoftheEarthv.LaidlawEnvironmentalServices(2000) SWANCCv.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(2001) DepartmentofTransportationv.PublicCitizen(2004) Rapanosv.UnitedStates(2006) Massachusettsv.EPA(2007) NationalAss'nofHomeBuildersv.DefendersofWildlife(2007) CoeurAlaska,Inc.v.SoutheastAlaskaConservationCouncil(2009) Michiganv.EPA(2015) CountyofMauiv.HawaiiWildlifeFund(2020) BPP.L.C.v.MayorandCityCouncilofBaltimore(2021) Majorfederallegislationandtreaties RiversandHarborsAct(1899) LaceyAct(1900) WeeksAct(1911) NorthPacificFurSealConventionof1911(1911) MigratoryBirdTreatyAct(1918) Clarke–McNaryAct(1924) McSweeney-McNaryAct(1928) FishandWildlifeCoordinationAct(1934) WatershedProtectionandFloodPreventionAct(1954) CleanAirAct(1963,1970) NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(1970) CleanWaterAct(1972) FederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct(1972) NoiseControlAct(1972) EndangeredSpeciesAct(1973) SafeDrinkingWaterAct(1974) ResourceConservationandRecoveryAct(1976) ToxicSubstancesControlAct(1976) SurfaceMiningControlandReclamationAct(1977) CERCLA(Superfund)(1980) EmergencyPlanningandCommunityRight-to-KnowAct(1986) EmergencyWetlandsResourcesAct(1986) FrankR.LautenbergChemicalSafetyforthe21stCenturyAct(2016) Federalagencies AgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistry CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality OfficeofSurfaceMining UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency UnitedStatesFishandWildlifeService Regulationsandconcepts Bestavailabletechnology Citizensuit DischargeMonitoringReport Effluentguidelines Environmentalcrime Environmentalimpactstatement Environmentaljustice NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards NationalPrioritiesList NewSourcePerformanceStandards Not-To-Exceed(NTE) Righttoknow Totalmaximumdailyload Toxicitycategoryrating AuthoritycontrolGeneral VIAF 1 WorldCat(viaVIAF) Nationallibraries UnitedStates Other MicrosoftAcademic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clean_Water_Act&oldid=1053135208" Categories:WaterlawintheUnitedStatesUnitedStatesfederalenvironmentallegislation1972inlaw1977inlaw1987inlaw1972intheenvironmentWaterpollutionintheUnitedStatesHiddencategories:ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataArticleswithVIAFidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithMAidentifiersArticleswithWorldCat-VIAFidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةDeutschFrançaisItalianoPolski Editlinks