Clean Air Act (United States) - Wikipedia

The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' primary federal air quality law, intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide. CleanAirAct(UnitedStates) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeCleanAirAct(disambiguation). CleanAirActLongtitleAnActtoimprove,strengthen,andaccelerateprogramsforthepreventionandabatementofairpollution,asamended.Acronyms(colloquial)CAACodificationU.S.C.sectionscreated42U.S.C.ch.85(§§ 7401-7671q)MajoramendmentsCleanAirActof1963(77 Stat. 392,Pub.L. 88–206)MotorVehicleAirPollutionControlActof1965(79Stat.992,Pub.L. 89–272)AirQualityActof1967(81Stat.485,Pub.L. 90–148)CleanAirAmendmentsof1970(84Stat.1676,Pub.L. 91–604)CleanAirActAmendmentsof1977(91Stat.685,Pub.L. 95–95)CleanAirActAmendmentsof1990(104Stat.2468,Pub.L. 101–549)UnitedStatesSupremeCourtcasesUnionElec.Co.v.EPA,427U.S.246(1976)Chevronv.NRDC,467U.S.837(1984)Whitmanv.Am.TruckingAss'ns,531U.S.457(2001)EngineerManufacturersAssociationv.SouthCoastAirQualityManagementDistrict,541U.S.246(2004)Massachusettsv.EPA,549U.S.497(2007)AmericanElectricPowerCo.v.Connecticut,564U.S.410(2011)EPAv.EMEHomerCityGeneration,L.P.,572U.S.489(2014)UtilityAirRegulatoryGroupv.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,573U.S.302(2014)Michiganv.EPA,No.14-46,576U.S.___(2015)HollyFrontierCheyenneRefining,LLCv.RenewableFuelsAssn.,No.20-472,594U.S.___(2021)WestVirginiav.EPA(pending) TheCleanAirAct(CAA)istheUnitedStates'primaryfederalairqualitylaw,intendedtoreduceandcontrolairpollutionnationwide.Initiallyenactedin1963andamendedmanytimessince,itisoneoftheUnitedStates'firstandmostinfluentialmodernenvironmentallaws. AswithmanyothermajorU.S.federalenvironmentalstatutes,theCleanAirActisadministeredbytheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),incoordinationwithstate,local,andtribalgovernments.[1]: 2–3 EPAdevelopsextensiveadministrativeregulationstocarryoutthelaw'smandates.Theassociatedregulatoryprogramsareoftentechnicalandcomplex.Amongthemostimportant,theNationalAmbientAirQualityStandardsprogramsetsstandardsforconcentrationsofcertainpollutantsinoutdoorair;theNationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutantsprogramsetsstandardsforemissionsofparticularhazardouspollutantsfromspecificsources.Otherprogramscreaterequirementsforvehiclefuels,industrialfacilities,andothertechnologiesandactivitiesthatimpactairquality.Newerprogramstacklespecificproblems,includingacidrain,ozonelayerprotection,andclimatechange. Althoughitsexactbenefitsdependonwhatiscounted,theCleanAirActhassubstantiallyreducedairpollutionandimprovedUSairquality—benefitswhichEPAcreditswithsavingtrillionsofdollarsandmanythousandsofliveseachyear. Contents 1Regulatoryprograms 1.1NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards 1.2NationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutants 1.3NewSourcePerformanceStandards 1.4AcidRainProgram 1.5Ozonelayerprotection 1.6Mobilesourceprograms 1.6.1On-roadvehiclesregulations 1.6.2Non-roadvehiclesregulations 1.6.3Voluntaryprograms 1.7Fuelcontrols 1.8Stateimplementationplans 1.8.1Non-attainmentareas 1.8.2Preventionofsignificantdeterioration 1.9Stationarysourceoperatingpermits 1.10Monitoringandenforcement 1.11Greenhousegasregulation 1.12Others 2History 3Effects 4Legalchallenges 5Futurechallenges 6References 7Externallinks Regulatoryprograms[edit] IntheUnitedStates,the"CleanAirAct"typicallyreferstothecodifiedstatuteat42U.S.C.ch.85.ThatstatuteistheproductofmultipleactsofCongress,oneofwhich—the1963act—wasactuallytitledtheCleanAirAct,andanotherofwhich—the1970act—ismostoftenreferredtoassuch.IntheU.S.Code,thestatuteitselfisdividedintosubchapters,andthesectionnumbersarenotclearlyrelatedtothesubchapters.Howeverinthebillsthatcreatedthelaw,themajordivisionsarecalled"Titles",andthelaw'ssectionsarenumberedaccordingtothetitle(e.g.,TitleIIbeginswithSection201).[2]Inpractice,EPA,courts,andattorneysoftenusethelatternumberingscheme. Althoughmanypartsofthestatutearequitedetailed,otherssetoutonlythegeneraloutlinesofthelaw'sregulatoryprograms,andleavemanykeytermsundefined.Responsibleagencies,primarilyEPA,havethereforedevelopedadministrativeregulationstocarryoutCongress'sinstructions.EPA'sproposedandfinalregulationsarepublishedintheFederalRegister,oftenwithlengthybackgroundhistories.TheexistingCAAregulationsarecodifiedat40C.F.R.SubchapterC,Parts50–98.[3]ThesePartsmoreoftencorrespondtotheCleanAirAct'smajorregulatoryprograms. Today,thefollowingaremajorregulatoryprogramsundertheCleanAirAct. NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards[edit] TheNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS)governhowmuchground-levelozone(O3),carbonmonoxide(CO),particulatematter(PM10,PM2.5),lead(Pb),sulfurdioxide(SO2),andnitrogendioxide(NO2)areallowedintheoutdoorair.[4]TheNAAQSsettheacceptablelevelsofcertainairpollutantsintheambientairintheUnitedStates.Priorto1965,therewasnonationalprogramfordevelopingambientairqualitystandards,andpriorto1970thefederalgovernmentdidnothaveprimaryresponsibilityfordevelopingthem.The1970CAAamendmentsrequiredEPAtodeterminewhichairpollutantsposedthegreatestthreattopublichealthandwelfareandpromulgateNAAQSandairqualitycriteriaforthem.Thehealth-basedstandardswerecalled"primary"NAAQS,whilestandardssettoprotectpublicwelfareotherthanhealth(e.g.,agriculturalvalues)werecalled"secondary"NAAQS.In1971,EPApromulgatedregulationsforsulfuroxides,particulatematter,carbonmonoxide,photochemicaloxidants,hydrocarbons,andnitrogendioxide(36FR22384).Initially,EPAdidnotlistleadasacriteriapollutant,controllingitthroughmobilesourceauthorities,butitwasrequiredtodosoaftersuccessfullitigationbyNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC)in1976(43FR46258).The1977CAAAmendmentscreatedaprocessforregularreviewoftheNAAQSlist,andcreatedapermanentindependentscientificreviewcommitteetoprovidetechnicalinputontheNAAQStoEPA.[5]EPAaddedregulationsforPM2.5in1997(62FR38652),andupdatestheNAAQSfromtimetotimebasedonemergingenvironmentalandhealthscience. NationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutants[edit] TheNationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutants(NESHAPs)governhowmuchof187toxicairpollutantsareallowedtobeemittedfromindustrialfacilitiesandothersources.[6]UndertheCAA,hazardousairpollutants(HAPs,orairtoxics)areairpollutantsotherthanthoseforwhichNAAQSexist,whichthreatenhumanhealthandwelfare.TheNESHAPsarethestandardsusedforcontrolling,reducing,andeliminatingHAPsemissionsfromstationarysourcessuchasindustrialfacilities.The1970CAArequiredEPAtodevelopalistofHAPs,andthendevelopnationalemissionsstandardsforeachofthem.TheoriginalNESHAPswerehealth-basedstandards.The1990CAAAmendments(Pub.L. 101–549TitleIII)codifiedEPA'slist,andrequiredcreationoftechnology-basedstandardsaccordingto"maximumachievablecontroltechnology"(MACT).Overtheyears,EPAhasissueddozensofNESHAPregulations,whichhavedevelopedNESHAPsbypollutant,byindustrysourcecategory,andbyindustrialprocess.TherearealsoNESHAPsformobilesources(transportation),althoughtheseareprimarilyhandledunderthemobilesourceauthorities.[7]The1990amendments(addingCAA§112(d-f))alsocreatedaprocessbywhichEPAwasrequiredtoreviewandupdateitsNESHAPseveryeightyears,andidentifyanyrisksremainingafterapplicationofMACT,anddevelopadditionalrulesnecessarytoprotectpublichealth.[8] NewSourcePerformanceStandards[edit] TheNewSourcePerformanceStandards(NSPS)arerulesfortheequipmentrequiredtobeinstalledinnewandmodifiedindustrialfacilities,andtherulesfordeterminingwhetherafacilityis"new".[9]The1970CAArequiredEPAtodevelopstandardsfornewly-constructedandmodifiedstationarysources(industrialfacilities)usingthe"bestsystemofemissionreductionwhich(takingintoaccountthecostofachievingsuchreduction)the[EPA]determineshasbeenadequatelydemonstrated."EPAissueditsfirstNSPSregulationthenextyear,coveringsteamgenerators,incinerators,Portlandcementplants,andnitricandsulfuricacidplants(36FR24876).Sincethen,EPAhasissueddozensofNSPSregulations,primarilybysourcecategory.Therequirementspromoteindustrywideadoptionofavailablepollutioncontroltechnologies.However,becausethesestandardsapplyonlytonewandmodifiedsources,theypromoteextendingthelifetimesofpre-existingfacilities.Inthe1977CAAAmendments,CongressrequiredEPAtoconducta"newsourcereview"process(40 CFR52,subpartI)todeterminewhethermaintenanceandotheractivitiesrisestothelevelofmodificationrequiringapplicationofNSPS.[10] AcidRainProgram[edit] TheAcidRainProgram(ARP)isanemissionstradingprogramforpowerplantstocontrolthepollutantsthatcauseacidrain.[11]The1990CAAAmendmentscreatedanewtitletoaddresstheissueofacidrain,andparticularlynitrogenoxides(NOx)andsulfurdioxide(SO2)emissionsfromelectricpowerplantspoweredbyfossilfuels,andotherindustrialsources.TheAcidRainProgramwasthefirstemissionstradingprogramintheUnitedStates,settingacapontotalemissionsthatwasreducedovertimebywayoftradedemissionscredits,ratherthandirectcontrolsonemissions.Theprogramevolvedintwostages:thefirststagerequiredmorethan100electricgeneratingfacilitieslargerthan100megawattstomeeta3.5milliontonSO2emissionreductionbyJanuary1995.Thesecondstagegavefacilitieslargerthan75megawattsaJanuary2000deadline.Theprogramhasachievedallofitsstatutorygoals.[12] Ozonelayerprotection[edit] TheCAAozoneprogramisatechnologytransitionprogramintendedtophaseouttheuseofchemicalsthatharmtheozonelayer.[13]ConsistentwiththeUScommitmentsintheMontrealProtocol,CAATitleVI,addedbythe1990CAAAmendments,mandatedregulationsregardingtheuseandproductionofchemicalsthatharmEarth'sstratosphericozonelayer.UnderTitleVI,EPArunsprogramstophaseoutozone-destroyingsubstances,tracktheirimportandexport,determineexemptionsfortheircontinueduse,anddefinepracticesfordestroyingthem,maintainingandservicingequipmentthatusesthem,andidentifyingnewalternativestothosestillinuse. Mobilesourceprograms[edit] Rulesforpollutantsemittedfrominternalcombustionenginesinvehicles.[14]Since1965,Congresshasmandatedincreasinglystringentcontrolsonvehicleenginetechnologyandreductionsintailpipeemissions.Today,thelawrequiresEPAtoestablishandregularlyupdateregulationsforpollutantsthatmaythreatenpublichealth,fromawidevarietyofclassesofmotorvehicles,thatincorporatetechnologytoachievethe"greatestdegreeofemissionreductionachievable",factoringinavailability,cost,energy,andsafety(42 U.S.C. § 7521). On-roadvehiclesregulations[edit] EPAsetsstandardsforexhaustgases,evaporativeemissions,airtoxics,refuelingvaporrecovery,andvehicleinspectionandmaintenanceforseveralclassesofvehiclesthattravelonroadways.EPA's"light-dutyvehicles"regulationscoverpassengercars,minivans,passengervans,pickuptrucks,andSUVs."Heavy-dutyvehicles"regulationscoverlargetrucksandbuses.EPAfirstissuedmotorcycleemissionsregulationsin1977(42FR1122)andupdatedthemin2004(69FR2397). Non-roadvehiclesregulations[edit] The1970CAAamendmentsprovidedforregulationofaircraftemissions(42 U.S.C. § 7571),andEPAbeganregulatingin1973.In2012,EPAfinalizeditsnewestrestrictionsonNOxemissionsfromgasturbineaircraftengineswithratedthrustsabove26.7kiloNewton(3shortton-force),meaningprimarilycommercialjetaircraftengines,intendedtomatchinternationalstandards.EPAhasbeeninvestigatingwhethertoregulateleadinfuelsforsmallaircraftsince2010,buthasnotyetacted.The1990CAAAmendments(Pub.L. 101–549§222)addedrulesfora"nonroad"engineprogram(42 U.S.C. § 7547),whichexpandedEPAregulationtolocomotives,heavyequipmentandsmallequipmentenginesfueledbydiesel(compression-ignition),andgasandotherfuels(spark-ignition),andmarinetransport. Voluntaryprograms[edit] EPAhasdevelopedavarietyofvoluntaryprogramstoincentivizeandpromotereductionintransportation-relatedairpollution,includingelementsoftheCleanDieselCampaign,PortsInitiative,SmartWayprogram,andothers. Fuelcontrols[edit] EPAhasregulatedthechemicalcompositionoftransportationfuelssince1967,withsignificantnewauthorityaddedin1970toprotectpublichealth.[15]OneofEPA'searliestactionswastheeliminationofleadinU.S.gasolinebeginningin1971(36FR1486,37FR3882,38FR33734),aprojectthathasbeendescribedas"oneofthegreatpublichealthachievementsofthe20thcentury."[16]EPAcontinuestoregulatethechemicalcompositionofgasoline,avgas,anddieselfuelintheUnitedStates. Stateimplementationplans[edit] The1963actrequireddevelopmentofStateImplementationPlans(SIPs)aspartofacooperativefederalistprogramfordevelopingpollutioncontrolstandardsandprograms.[17]Ratherthancreateasolelynationalprogram,theCAAimposesresponsibilitiesontheU.S.statestocreateplanstoimplementtheAct'srequirements.EPAthenreviews,amends,andapprovesthoseplans.EPAfirstpromulgatedSIPregulationsin1971and1972.[18] Non-attainmentareas[edit] The1977CAAAmendmentsaddedSIPrequirementsforareasthathadnotattainedtheapplicableNAAQS("nonattainmentareas").Intheseareas,stateswererequiredtoadoptplansthatmade"reasonablefurtherprogress"towardattainmentuntilallall"reasonablyavailablecontrolmeasures"couldbeadopted.AsprogressonattainmentwasmuchslowerthanCongressoriginallyinstructed,majoramendmentstoSIPrequirementsinnonattainmentareaswerepartofthe1990CAAAmendments.[19] Preventionofsignificantdeterioration[edit] The1977CAAAmendmentsmodifiedtheSIPrequirementsbyadding"PreventionofSignificantDeterioration"(PSD)requirements.Theserequirementsprotectareas,includingparticularlywildernessareasandnationalparks,thatalreadymettheNAAQS.ThePSDprovisionrequiresSIPstopreservegoodqualityairinadditiontocleaningupbadair.ThenewlawalsorequiredNewSourceReview(investigationsofproposedconstructionofnewpollutingfacilities)toexaminewhetherPSDrequirementswouldbemet.[20] Stationarysourceoperatingpermits[edit] The1990amendmentsauthorizedanationaloperatingpermitprogram,sometimescalledthe"TitleVProgram",coveringthousandsoflargeindustrialandcommercialsources.Itrequiredlargebusinessestoaddresspollutantsreleasedintotheair,measuretheirquantity,andhaveaplantocontrolandminimizethemaswellastoperiodicallyreport.Thisconsolidatedrequirementsforafacilityintoasingledocument.[1]: 19 Innon-attainmentareas,permitswererequiredforsourcesthatemitaslittleas50,25,or10tonsperyearofVOCsdependingontheseverityoftheregion'snon-attainmentstatus.[21]Mostpermitsareissuedbystateandlocalagencies.[22]Ifthestatedoesnotadequatelymonitorrequirements,theEPAmaytakecontrol.ThepublicmayrequesttoviewthepermitsbycontactingtheEPA.Thepermitislimitedtonomorethanfiveyearsandrequiresarenewal.[21] Monitoringandenforcement[edit] OneofthemostpublicaspectsoftheCleanAirAct,EPAisempoweredtomonitorcompliancewiththelaw'smanyrequirements,seekpenaltiesforviolations,andcompelregulatedentitiestocomeintocompliance.[23]Enforcementcasesareusuallysettled,withpenaltiesassessedwellbelowmaximumstatutorylimits.[citationneeded]Recently,manyofthelargestCleanAirActsettlementshavebeenreachedwithautomakersaccusedofcircumventingtheAct'svehicleandfuelstandards(e.g.,the2015"Dieselgate"scandal). Greenhousegasregulation[edit] Mainarticle:RegulationofgreenhousegasesundertheCleanAirAct MuchofEPA'sregulationofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsoccursundertheprogramsdiscussedabove.EPAbeganregulatingGHGemissionsfollowingtheSupremeCourt'srulinginMassachusettsv.EPA,theEPA'ssubsequentendangermentfinding,anddevelopmentofspecificregulationsforvarioussources.[24]StandardsformobilesourceshavebeenestablishedpursuanttoSection202oftheCAA,andGHGsfromstationarysourcesarecontrolledundertheauthorityofPartCofTitleIoftheAct.TheEPA'sautoemissionstandardsforgreenhousegasemissionsissuedin2010and2012areintendedtocutemissionsfromtargetedvehiclesbyhalf,doublefueleconomyofpassengercarsandlight-dutytrucksby2025andsaveover$4billionbarrelsofoiland$1.7trillionforconsumers.Theagencyhasalsoproposedatwo-phaseprogramtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsformediumandheavydutytrucksandbuses.[needsupdate][25]Inaddition,EPAoverseesthenationalgreenhousegasinventoryreportingprogram.[26] Others[edit] OtherimportantbutlessfoundationalCleanAirActregulatoryprogramstendtobuildonorcutacrosstheaboveprograms: RiskAssessment.Althoughnotaregulatoryprogramperse,manyEPAregulatoryprogramsinvolveriskassessmentandmanagement.[27]Overtheyears,EPAhasundertakentounifyandorganizeitsmanyriskassessmentprocesses.The1990CAAAmendmentscreatedaCommissiononRiskAssessmentandManagementtaskedwithmakingrecommendationsforariskassessmentframework,[28]andmanysubsequentreportshavebuiltonthiswork. VisibilityandRegionalHaze.EPAmonitorsvisibilityandairclarity(haze)at156protectedparksandwildernessareas,andrequiresstatestodevelopplanstoimprovevisibilitybyreducingpollutantsthatcontributetohaze.[29] Interstatepollutioncontrol.TheCleanAirAct's"goodneighbor"provisionrequiresstatestocontrolemissionsthatwillsignificantlycontributetoNAAQSnonattainmentormaintenanceinadownwindstate.[30][31]EPAhasstruggledtoenactregulationsthatimplementthisrequirementformanyyears.Itdevelopedthe"CleanAirInterstateRule"between2003and2005,butthiswasoverturnedbythecourtsin2008.EPAthendevelopedtheCross-StateAirPollutionRulebetween2009and2011,anditcontinuestobelitigatedasEPAupdatesit. Startup,Shutdown,&Malfunction.EPApromulgatesrulesforstatestoaddressexcessemissionsduringperiodsofstartup,shutdown,andmalfunction,whenfacilityemissionsmaytemporarilybemuchhigherthanstandardregulatorylimits.[32] History[edit] BetweentheSecondIndustrialRevolutionandthe1960s,theUnitedStatesexperiencedincreasinglysevereairpollution.Followingthe1948Donorasmogevent,thepublicbegantodiscussairpollutionasamajorproblem,statesbegantopassaseriesoflawstoreduceairpollution,andCongressbegandiscussingwhethertotakefurtheractioninresponse.Atthetime,theprimaryfederalagenciesinterestedinairpollutionweretheUnitedStatesBureauofMines,whichwasinterestedin"smokeabatement"(reducingsmokefromcoalburning),andtheUnitedStatesPublicHealthService,whichhandledindustrialhygieneandwasconcernedwiththecausesoflunghealthproblems.[33] Afterseveralyearsofproposalsandhearings,Congresspassedthefirstfederallegislationtoaddressairpollutionin1955.TheAirPollutionControlActof1955authorizedaresearchandtrainingprogram,sending$3millionperyeartotheU.S.PublicHealthServiceforfiveyears,butdidnotdirectlyregulatepollutionsources.The1955Act'sresearchprogramwasextendedin1959,1960,and1962whileCongressconsideredwhethertoregulatefurther. Beginningin1963,Congressbeganexpandingfederalairpollutioncontrollawtoacceleratetheeliminationofairpollutionthroughoutthecountry.Thenewlaw'sprogramswereinitiallyadministeredbytheU.S.SecretaryofHealth,Education,andWelfare,andtheAirPollutionOfficeoftheU.S.PublicHealthService,untiltheyweretransferredtothenewly-createdEPAimmediatelybeforemajoramendmentsin1970.EPAhasadministeredtheCleanAirActeversince,andCongressaddedmajorregulatoryprogramsin1977and1990.[34]Mostrecently,theU.S.SupremeCourt'srulinginMassachusettsv.EPAresultedinanexpansionofEPA'sCAAregulatoryactivitiestocovergreenhousegases. CleanAirActof1963andEarlyAmendments.TheCleanAirActof1963(Pub.L. 88–206)wasthefirstfederallegislationtopermittheU.S.federalgovernmenttotakedirectactiontocontrolairpollution.Itextendedthe1955researchprogram,encouragedcooperativestate,local,andfederalactiontoreduceairpollution,appropriated$95millionoverthreeyearstosupportthedevelopmentofstatepollutioncontrolprograms,andauthorizedtheHEWSecretarytoorganizeconferencesandtakedirectactionagainstinterstateairpollutionwherestateactionwasdeemedtobeinsufficient.[33] TheMotorVehicleAirPollutionControlAct(Pub.L. 89–272)amendedthe1963CleanAirActandsetthefirstfederalvehicleemissionsstandards,beginningwiththe1968models.Thesestandardswerereductionsfrom1963emissionslevels:72%reductionforhydrocarbons,56%reductionforcarbonmonoxide,and100%reductionforcrankcasehydrocarbons.[citationneeded].Thelawalsoaddedanewsectiontoauthorizeabatementofinternationalairpollution.[35] PresidentLyndonB.Johnsonsignsthe1967AirQualityActintheEastRoomoftheWhiteHouse,November21,1967. TheAirQualityActof1967(Pub.L. 90–148)authorizedplanninggrantstostateairpollutioncontrolagencies,permittedthecreationofinterstateairpollutioncontrolagencies,andrequiredHEWtodefineairqualityregionsanddeveloptechnicaldocumentationthatwouldallowstatestosetambientairqualityandpollutioncontroltechnologystandards,andrequiredstatestosubmitimplementationplansforimprovementofairquality,andpermittedHEWtotakedirectabatementactioninairpollutionemergencies.Italsoauthorizedexpandedstudiesofairpollutantemissioninventories,ambientmonitoringtechniques,andcontroltechniques.[36][35]Thisenabledthefederalgovernmenttoincreaseitsactivitiestoinvestigateenforcinginterstateairpollutiontransport,and,forthefirsttime,toperformfar-reachingambientmonitoringstudiesandstationarysourceinspections.The1967actalsoauthorizedexpandedstudiesofairpollutantemissioninventories,ambientmonitoringtechniques,andcontroltechniques.[37]Whileonlysixstateshadairpollutionprogramsin1960,all50stateshadairpollutionprogramsby1970duetothefederalfundingandlegislationofthe1960s.[25] PresidentRichardNixonsignstheCleanAirAmendmentsof1970attheWhiteHouse,December31,1970. 1970Amendments.IntheCleanAirAmendmentsof1970(Pub.L. 91–604),Congressgreatlyexpandedthefederalmandatebyrequiringcomprehensivefederalandstateregulationsforbothindustrialandmobilesources.ThelawestablishedtheNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS),NewSourcePerformanceStandards(NSPS);andNationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutants(NESHAPs),andsignificantlystrengthenedfederalenforcementauthority,alltowardachievingaggressiveairpollutionreductiongoals. Toimplementthestrictamendments,EPAAdministratorWilliamRuckelshausspent60%ofhistimeduringhisfirsttermontheautomobileindustry,whoseemissionsweretobereduced90%underthenewlaw.Senatorshadbeenfrustratedattheindustry'sfailuretocutemissionsunderprevious,weakerairlaws.[38] 1977Amendments.MajoramendmentswereaddedtotheCleanAirActin1977(1977CAAA)(91Stat.685,Pub.L. 95–95).The1977AmendmentsprimarilyconcernedprovisionsforthePreventionofSignificantDeterioration(PSD)ofairqualityinareasattainingtheNAAQS.The1977CAAAalsocontainedrequirementspertainingtosourcesinnon-attainmentareasforNAAQS.Anon-attainmentareaisageographicareathatdoesnotmeetoneormoreofthefederalairqualitystandards.Bothofthese1977CAAAestablishedmajorpermitreviewrequirementstoensureattainmentandmaintenanceoftheNAAQS.[37]TheseamendmentsalsoincludedtheadoptionofanoffsettradingpolicyoriginallyappliedtoLosAngelesin1974thatenablesnewsourcestooffsettheiremissionsbypurchasingextrareductionsfromexistingsources.[25] TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1977requiredPreventionofSignificantDeterioration(PSD)ofairqualityforareasattainingtheNAAQSandaddedrequirementsfornon-attainmentareas.[39] PresidentGeorgeH.W.BushsignstheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1990attheWhiteHouse,November15,1990. 1990Amendments.AnothersetofmajoramendmentstotheCleanAirActoccurredin1990(1990CAAA)(104Stat.2468,Pub.L. 101–549).The1990CAAAsubstantiallyincreasedtheauthorityandresponsibilityofthefederalgovernment.Newregulatoryprogramswereauthorizedforcontrolofaciddeposition(acidrain)[40]andfortheissuanceofstationarysourceoperatingpermits.TheNESHAPswereincorporatedintoagreatlyexpandedprogramforcontrollingtoxicairpollutants.TheprovisionsforattainmentandmaintenanceofNAAQSweresubstantiallymodifiedandexpanded.Otherrevisionsincludedprovisionsregardingstratosphericozoneprotection,increasedenforcementauthority,andexpandedresearchprograms.[37] The1990CleanAirActaddedregulatoryprogramsforcontrolofaciddeposition(acidrain)andstationarysourceoperatingpermits.Theprovisionsaimedatreducingsulfurdioxideemissionsincludedacap-and-tradeprogram,whichgavepowercompaniesmoreflexibilityinmeetingthelaw'sgoalscomparedtoearlieriterationsoftheCleanAirAct.[41]Theamendmentsmovedconsiderablybeyondtheoriginalcriteriapollutants,expandingtheNESHAPprogramwithalistof189hazardousairpollutantstobecontrolledwithinhundredsofsourcecategories,accordingtoaspecificschedule.[1]{rp|16}}TheNAAQSprogramwasalsoexpanded.Othernewprovisionscoveredstratosphericozoneprotection,increasedenforcementauthorityandexpandedresearchprograms.[42] Furtheramendmentsweremadein1990toaddresstheproblemsofacidrain,ozonedepletion,andtoxicairpollution,andtoestablishanationalpermitprogramforstationarysources,andincreasedenforcementauthority.Theamendmentsalsoestablishednewautogasolinereformulationrequirements,setReidvaporpressure(RVP)standardstocontrolevaporativeemissionsfromgasoline,andmandatednewgasolineformulationssoldfromMaytoSeptemberinmanystates.ReviewinghistenureasEPAAdministratorunderPresidentGeorgeH.W.Bush,WilliamK.Reillycharacterizedpassageofthe1990amendmentstotheCleanAirActashismostnotableaccomplishment.[43] Federalism.Before1970,therewasonlyaverylimitednationalairpollutioncontrolprogram,withalmostallenforcementauthorityreservedtostateandlocalgovernments,ashadbeenthecasetraditionallyunderU.S.federalism.The1970CleanAirActwasamajorevolutioninthissystem,providingEPAwithenforcementauthorityandrequiringstatestodevelopStateImplementationPlansforhowtheywouldmeetnewnationalambientairqualitystandardsby1977.[44]Thiscooperativefederalmodelcontinuestoday.ThelawrecognizesthatstatesshouldleadincarryingouttheCleanAirAct,becausepollutioncontrolproblemsoftenrequirespecialunderstandingoflocalindustries,geography,housingpatterns,etc.However,statesarenotallowedtohaveweakercontrolsthanthenationalminimumcriteriasetbyEPA.EPAmustapproveeachSIP,andifaSIPisnotacceptable,EPAcanretainCAAenforcementinthatstate.Forexample,CaliforniawasunabletomeetthenewstandardssetbytheCleanAirActof1970,whichledtoalawsuitandafederalstateimplementationplanforthestate.[45]Thefederalgovernmentalsoassiststhestatesbyprovidingscientificresearch,expertstudies,engineeringdesigns,andmoneytosupportcleanairprograms.Thelawalsopreventsstatesfromsettingstandardsthataremorestrictthanthefederalstandards,butcarvesoutaspecialexemptionforCaliforniaduetoitspastissueswithsmogpollutioninthemetropolitanareas.Inpractice,whenCalifornia'senvironmentalagenciesdecideonnewvehicleemissionstandards,theyaresubmittedtotheEPAforapprovalunderthiswaiver,withthemostrecentapprovalin2009.[46]TheCaliforniastandardwasadoptedbytwelveotherstates,andestablishedthedefactostandardthatautomobilemanufacturerssubsequentlyaccepted,toavoidhavingtodevelopdifferentemissionsystemsintheirvehiclesfordifferentstates.However,inSeptember2019,PresidentDonaldTrumpattemptedtorevokethiswaiver,arguingthatthestricteremissionshavemadecarstooexpensive,andbyremovingthem,willmakevehiclessafer.EPA'sAndrewWheeleralsostatedthatwhiletheagencyrespectsfederalism,theycouldnotallowonestatetodictatestandardsfortheentirenation.California'sgovernorGavinNewsomconsideredthemovepartofTrump's"politicalvendetta"againstCaliforniaandstatedhisintenttosuethefederalgovernment.[47]Twenty-threestates,alongwiththeDistrictofColumbiaandthecitiesofNewYorkCityandLosAngeles,joinedCaliforniainafederallawsuitchallengingtheadministration'sdecision.[48] Effects[edit] GraphshowingdecreasesinUSairpollutionconcentrationsduring1990to2015 AccordingtothemostrecentstudybyEPA,whencomparedtothebaselineofthe1970and1977regulatoryprograms,by2020theupdatesinitiatedbythe1990CleanAirActAmendmentswouldbecostingtheUnitedStatesabout$60billionperyear,whilebenefitingtheUnitedStates(inmonetizedhealthandlivessaved)about$2trillionperyear.[49]In2020,astudypreparedfortheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilestimatedannualbenefitsat370,000avoidedprematuredeaths,189,000fewerhospitaladmissions,andneteconomicbenefitsofupto$3.8trillion(32timesthecostoftheregulations).[50]Otherstudieshavereachedsimilarconclusions.[51] Mobilesourcesincludingautomobiles,trains,andboatengineshavebecome99%cleanerforpollutantslikehydrocarbons,carbonmonoxide,nitrogenoxides,andparticleemissionssincethe1970s.Theallowableemissionsofvolatileorganicchemicals,carbonmonoxide,nitrogenoxides,andleadfromindividualcarshavealsobeenreducedbymorethan90%,resultingindecreasednationalemissionsofthesepollutantsdespiteamorethan400%increaseintotalmilesdrivenyearly.[25]Sincethe1980s,1/4thofgroundlevelozonehasbeencut,mercuryemissionshavebeencutby80%,andsincethechangefromleadedgastounleadedgas90%ofatmosphericleadpollutionhasbeenreduced.[52]A2018studyfoundthattheCleanAirActcontributedtothe60%declineinpollutionemissionsbythemanufacturingindustrybetween1990and2008.[53][54] Legalchallenges[edit] Sinceitsinception,theauthoritygiventotheEPAbyCongressandtheEPA'srulemakingwithintheCleanAirActhasbeensubjecttonumerouslawsuits.SomeofthemajorsuitswheretheCleanAirActhasbeenfocalpointoflitigationincludethefollowing: Trainv.NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil,Inc.,421U.S.60(1975) UndertheCleanAirAct,stateswererequiredtosubmittheirimplementationplanswithinninemonthsoftheEPA'spromulgationofthenewstandards.TheEPAapprovedseveralstateplansthatallowedforvariancesintheiremissionslimitations,andtheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilchallengedthatapproval.TheSupremeCourtheldthattheEPA'sapprovalwasvalid,andthataslongasthe“ultimateeffectofaState'schoiceofemissionlimitationsiscompliancewiththenationalstandardsforambientair,”astateis“atlibertytoadoptwhatevermixofemissionlimitationsitdeemsbestsuitedtoitsparticularsituation.”[55] ChevronU.S.A.,Inc.v.NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil,Inc.,467U.S.837(1984) TheCleanAirActinstructedtheEPAtoregulateemissionsfromsourcesofairpollution,butdidnotdefinewhatshouldbeconsideredasourcefortheemissionofairpollution,sotheEPAhadinterpretedwhatasourcewasbasedonthelegislation.TheEPA'sinterpretationwaschallenged,butafterreview,theSupremeCourtruledina7–0decisionthattheEPAhadjudicialdeferencetoestablishtheirowninterpretationoflawwhenthelawisambiguousandtheinterpretationisreasonableandconsistent.ThisprinciplehascometobeknownastheChevrondeferenceapplyingtoanyexecutiveagencygrantedpowersfromCongress.[56] Whitmanv.AmericanTruckingAss'ns,Inc.,531U.S.457(2001) FollowingtheEPA'srulemakingrelatedtosettingNAAQSstandardsrelatedtodieseltruckemissions,thetruckingindustrychallengedtheEPA'sruleinlowercourts,assertingtheEPA'srulefailedtojustifyreasoningforthesenewlevelsandviolatedthenondelegationdoctrine.TheD.C.CircuitCourtfoundinfavorofthetruckingindustry,determiningthattheEPA'sruledidnotconsiderthecostsofimplementingemissionsregulationsandcontrols.TheSupremeCourtreversedtheD.C.DistrictCourt'sruling,affirmingthatnotonlywasthedelegationofpowerfromCongresstotheEPAbytheCleanAirActconstitutional,butthatthelawdidnotrequiretheEPAtoconsidercostsaspartofitsdeterminationforairqualitycontrols.[57] Massachusettsv.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,549U.S.497(2007) WithpressurefromstatesandenvironmentalgroupsontheEPAtoregulatecarbondioxideandothergreenhousegasemissionsfrommotorvehicles,theEPAdeterminedin2003thatthelanguageoftheCleanAirActdidnotallowthemtoregulateemissionsfrommotorvehicles,norweretheymotivatedtosetsuchregulationseveniftheywereableto.MultiplestatesandagenciessuedtheEPAforfailingtoactonwhattheyconsideredtobeharmfulairpollutants.TheSupremeCourtruled5–4thatnotonlydidtheCleanAirActmandatetheEPAtoregulatecarbondioxideandothergreenhousegasesasairpollutants,butthatfailingtoregulatetheseemissionswouldleavetheEPAliabletofurtherlitigation.[58]Whilethedecisionhasremainedcontentious,theCourt'sdecisioninMassachusettsv.EPAwasconsideredlandmark,asitopenedupthecourtsforfurtherenvironmentallawsuitstoforceentitiestorespondtoclimatechange.[59] AmericanElectricPowerCo.v.Connecticut,564U.S.410(2011) Severalstatesandcitiessuedelectricutilitycompaniestoforcethemtouseacap-and-tradesystemtoreducetheiremissionsunderaclaimtheiremissionswereapublicnuisance.TheSupremeCourtruledinan8–0decisionthatprivatecompaniescannotbesuedbyotherpartiesforemissions-relatedissues,asthisisapowerspecificallydelegatedtotheEPAthroughtheCleanAirActunderfederalcommonlaw.[60] UtilityAirRegulatoryGroupv.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,573U.S.302(2014) TheEPAissuednewrulesin2010thatexpandedemissionsregulationsforbothregulatedairpollutantsandgreenhousegasestolightandheavyenginesandsmallerstationarysources.Theseexpandedruleswerechallengedbyseveralpowercompaniesandregulatorygroups,astheygreatlyexpandedwhattypesoffacilitieswouldneedtoacquireenvironmentalpermitspriortoconstruction.TheSupremeCourtgenerallyupheldtheEPA'spowersthroughtheCleanAirAct,throughitvacatedportionsoftheEPA'snewrulesaffectingsmallersources.[61] Michiganv.EPA,576U.S.743(2015) In2012,theEPAissuednewrulesthatidentifiednewpollutantssuchasmercuryashazardousmaterialstoberegulatedinpowerplantemissions.Thecostofimplementingmercurypollutioncontrolsonnewandexistingplantscanbeexpensive,andseveralstates,companies,andotherorganizationssuedtheEPAthattheiranalysisleadingtothesenewrulesdidnotconsiderthecostfactorinvolved.TheSupremeCourtruled5–4thattheEPA'sfailuretoconsiderthecostsofthesepollutioncontrolswasinappropriate,andthatcostmustbeafactorinanyfindingthattheEPAfinds"necessaryandappropriate"undertheCleanAirAct.[62] WestVirginiav.EPA,pending Duetoanoversightduringreconciliationin1990,42 U.S.C. § 7411(d)includesbothHouseandSenatelanguagerelatedtotheEPA'sauthoritytoregulatecarbondioxideemissionsfromexistingpowerplants,withtheHouseversiondisallowitwhiletheSenateversionallowingit.AspartoftheCleanPowerPlanrulesin2015,theEPAreliedontheSenateversionof§7411(d)toimplementnewrulesforexistingsourcestosignificantlycutcarbondioxideemissions.Thenewruleswerechallengedincourt,butduetothechangefromtheObamaadministrationtotheTrumpadministration,theCleanPowerPlanwasrepealedbytheEPAinfavoroftheAffordableCleanEnergyrule,seekingonlyafractionoftheemissionsreductionsfromtheCleanPowerPlan.TheAffordableCleanEnergyrulewaschallengedincourtandtheD.C.DistrictCourtaffirmedthattherulewasarbitraryandcapriciousandfailedtoupholdtheEPA'smandatetotheCleanAirActbasedontheSenate'sversionof§7411(d).TheCourt'sdecisionwasbroughttotheSupremeCourtbymultiplestatesandthecoalindustry,seekingtodetermineiftheEPAproperlyinterpretedtheintentof§7411(d).Thecasewascertified,consolidatingfourpetitions,andwillbeheardduringthe2021–22term.[63] Futurechallenges[edit] Asof2017,someUScitiesstilldonotmeetallnationalambientairqualitystandards.Itislikelythattensofthousandsofprematuredeathsarestillbeingcausedbyfine-particlepollutionandground-levelozonepollution.[25] ClimatechangeposesachallengetothemanagementofconventionalairpollutantsintheUnitedStatesduetowarmer,dryersummerconditionsthatcanleadtoincreasedairstagnationepisodes.Prolongeddroughtsthatmaycontributetowildfireswouldalsoresultinregionallyhighlevelsofairparticles.[64] Transboundaryairpollution(bothenteringandexitingtheUnitedStates)isnotdirectlyregulatedbytheCleanAirAct,requiringinternationalnegotiationsandongoingagreementswithothernations,particularlyCanadaandMexico.[65] EnvironmentaljusticecontinuestobeanongoingchallengefortheCleanAirAct.Bypromotingpollutionreduction,theCleanAirActhelpsreduceheightenedexposuretoairpollutionamongcommunitiesofcolorandlow-incomecommunities.[66]ButAfricanAmericanpopulationsare"consistentlyoverrepresented"inareaswiththepoorestairquality.[67]Densepopulationsoflow-incomeandminoritycommunitiesinhabitthemostpollutedareasacrosstheUnitedStates,whichisconsideredtoexacerbatehealthproblemsamongthesepopulations.[68]Highlevelsofexposuretoairpollutionislinkedtoseveralhealthconditions,includingasthma,cancer,prematuredeath,andinfantmortality,eachofwhichdisproportionatelyimpactcommunitiesofcolorandlow-incomecommunities.[69]ThepollutionreductionachievedbytheCleanAirActisassociatedwithadeclineineachoftheseconditionsandcanpromoteenvironmentaljusticeforcommunitiesthataredisproportionatelyimpactedbyairpollutionanddiminishedhealthstatus.[69] References[edit] 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